Christopher Lord

Bøker

• Lord, C. and Harris, E. (2006) Democracy in the new Europe, Basingstoke, Palgrave/Macmillan.
• Lord, C. (2004) A Democratic Audit of the European Union, Basingstoke: Palgrave.
• Lord, C. (1998) Democracy in the European Union, London, UACES.
• Beetham, D. and Lord, C. (1998) Legitimacy and the European Union, London: Longman.
• Hix, S. and Lord, C. (1997) Political Parties and the European Union, Basingstoke, Macmillan.

Artikler

• Lord, C. (forthcoming) 'Polecats, Lions and Foxes: Coasian Bargaining Theory and attempts to legitimate the Union as a Constrained form of Political Power', European Political Science Review.
• Lord, C. and Pollak, J. (2010) ‘The EU’s Many Representative Modes: Colliding? Cohering?’, Journal of European Public Policy 17(1): 117-36.
• Lord, C. (2008) ‘Two Constitutionalisms? A Comparison of British and French attempts to legitimise the Constitutional Treaty’, Journal of European Public Policy 15(7): 1001-18.
• Lord, C. (2007) ‘Contested Meanings, Democracy Assessment and the European Union’, Comparative European Politics (5)1: 70-86.
• Lord, C. (2006) ‘Democracy and the European Union, Matching Means to Standards’, Democratization 13(4): 668-684.
• Lord, C. and Magnette, P. (2004) ‘E Pluribus Unum? Creative Disagreement about Legitimacy in the EU’, Journal of Common Market Studies 42(1): 183-202.

• Biévre, Dirk De; Bursens, Peter; Lord, Christopher James; Trondal, Jarle & Wessel, Ramses A. (2022). Concluding Implications for EU Policy, Law and Institutions. I Lord, Christopher James; Bursens, Peter; Biévre, Dirk De; Trondal, Jarle & Wessel, Ramses A. (Red.), The Politics of Legitimation in the European Union. Legitimacy Recovered?. Routledge. ISSN 9781032101408.
• Lord, Christopher James; Bursens, Peter; Biévre, Dirk De; Trondal, Jarle & Wessel, Ramses A. (2022). Theoretical framework: The politics of legitimation. I Lord, Christopher James; Bursens, Peter; Biévre, Dirk De; Trondal, Jarle & Wessel, Ramses A. (Red.), The Politics of Legitimation in the European Union. Legitimacy Recovered?. Routledge. ISSN 9781032101408.
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). Democracy at the EU level. Folly or Necessity? More work for a directly elected European Parliament? European Law Journal. ISSN 1351-5993. doi: 10.1111/eulj.12402. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). Referendums and Democratic Theory. I Smith, Julie (Red.), The Palgrave Handbook of Referendums. Palgrave Macmillan. ISSN 978-3-030-55803-1. s. 29–48.
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). Power, Money Knowledge and the European Central Bank. I Eriksen, Erik Oddvar (Red.), The Accountability of Expertise: Making the Un-Elected Safe for Democracy. Routledge. ISSN 9781003175490.
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). Autonomy or Domination? Two Faces of Differentiated Integration. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Politikwissenschaft. ISSN 1424-7755. 27(3), s. 546–562. doi: 10.1111/spsr.12472. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Lord, Christopher (2021). Legitimacy Crisis in the European Union. I Brack, Nathalie & Gürkan, Seda (Red.), Theorising the Crises of the European Union. Routledge. ISSN 9780367431402. Vis sammendrag

  This book examines the relevance of integration theories for studying and analsing the crisis situations faced by the EU since 2009. Ten years on from the start of the ‘age of crisis’, it critically analyses the impact of the multiple crises’ context on the EU polity and questions the utility of integration theories for grasping the peculiarities of the particular crisis under study. Bringing together prominent scholars in EU studies, the volume constitutes an essential reference book on integration theories. Its contribution is twofold. First, it provides a comparative overview of classical integration theories for studying and analysing current crisis situations the EU faces. Second, the book connects theories to current debates through an in-depth discussion of recent crises that hit European integration since 2009, with a particular focus on the financial crisis, Brexit, refugee crisis, illiberal tendencies in some member states, and the Coronavirus pandemic. This book will be of key interest to scholars and students of European integration, European Union politics, political theory, and, more broadly, to European studies.

• Lord, Christopher James (2020). Integration through differentiation and segmentation: the case of one member state from 1950 to Brexit (and beyond). I Fossum, John Erik & Batora, Jozef (Red.), Towards a Segmented European Political Order. The European Union's Post-crises Conundrum. Routledge. ISSN 9781138495333. s. 243–264.
• Deville, Marion & Lord, Christopher (2020). Parliaments as places of discourse. I Benoît, Cyril & Rozenberg, Olivier (Red.), Handbook of Parliamentary Studies. Interdisciplinary Approaches to Legislatures. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISSN 9781789906509. s. 465–478. doi: 10.4337/9781789906516.00036.
• Lord, Christopher (2020). Lessons from the past? The 1954 Association Agreement between the UK and the European Coal and Steel Community. I Westlake, Martin (Red.), Outside the EU. Options for Britain. Agenda Publishing. ISSN 9781788213127.
• Lord, Christopher (2020). Integration through Differentiation and Segmentation: The Case of one Member State from 1950 to Brexit (and Beyond). I Fossum, John Erik & Batora, Jozef (Red.), Towards a Segmented European Political Order. The European Union's Post-crises Conundrum. Routledge. ISSN 9781138495333.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). How can interparliamentary cooperation contribute to the legitimacy of the EU as an international actor? I Raube, Kolja; Müftüler-Bac, Meltem & Wouters, Jan (Red.), Parliamentary Cooperation and Diplomacy in EU External Relations. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISSN 9781786438850. s. 105–119. doi: 10.4337/9781786438850.00015.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). No epistocracy without representation? The case of the European Central Bank. I Krick, Eva & Holst, Cathrine (Red.), Experts and Democratic Legitimacy. Tracing the Social Ties of Expert Bodies in Europe. Routledge. ISSN 9780367427535. doi: 10.1080/23745118.2018.1515868. Vis sammendrag

  Experts and Democratic Legitimacy challenges the technocratic reading of expert bodies, such as central banks, advisory committees and regulatory agencies. Expert contributors ask in what way expert bodies are subject to some of the key pressures in contemporary governance, such as democratisation, politicisation and expertisation. Based on empirical studies, the book traces the multiple social ties of expert bodies and refines the common perception of expert bodies as ‘de-politicised’ institutions that are detached from political interference and societal input. It further theorises the tension and reconcilability between reliable, independent expert knowledge on the one hand and the need for accountability and legitimacy in modern policy-making on the other hand. Refining the detached, de-politicised image of non-majoritarian institutions, Experts and Democratic Legitimacy will be of great interest to scholars of European studies, political and social theory, modern governance and policy-making. This book was originally published as a special issue of European Politics and Society.

• Lord, Christopher (2019). No epistocracy without representation? The case of the European Central Bank. European Politics and Society. ISSN 2374-5118. 20(1), s. 1–15. doi: 10.1080/23745118.2018.1515868. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  I argue the European Central Bank shows how mutually defining are i) the epistemic assumptions of independent central banking; ii) the powers of a central bank; iii) the political order in which it operates and iv) representative claims. I identify three ‘representative turns’ whose effects have cumulated over the history of the ECB: the first towards including representative claims in justifications for independent central banking; the second, towards a monetary dialogue between the ECB and the European Parliament; the third, towards providing the ECB with some means of discussing with parliaments how it should act in emergencies.

• Lord, Christopher & Deville, Marion (2018). Le parlement: l'État, des lieux, du discours. I Thiers, Eric & Rozenberg, Olivier (Red.), Traité d'études parlementaires. Bruylant. ISSN 9782802760481. s. 637–656.
• Lord, Christopher (2018). The UK and European "centre formation" from 1950 to brexit. Geopolitics, History, and International Relations. ISSN 1948-9145. 10(1), s. 46–78. doi: 10.22381/GHIR10120183. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Lord, Christopher (2018). The European Parliament: a working parliament without a public? The Journal of Legislative Studies. ISSN 1357-2334. 24(1), s. 34–50. doi: 10.1080/13572334.2018.1444624.
• Lord, Christopher (2018). Exploring the connection between knowledge and democracy. I Holst, Cathrine; Warat, Marta & Góra, Magdalena (Red.), Expertisation and Democracy in Europe. Routledge. ISSN 978-1138288232. s. 17–32. doi: 10.4324/9781315268033-2. Vis sammendrag

  Expertisation and Democracy in Europe provides a much-needed account of the role and re-organisation of expertise and expert knowledge in Europe and the European Union in a broad range of policy spheres, contributing to the debate triggered by the recent crises. It brings novel perspectives to debates on technocracy and our understanding of the relations between knowledge, experts and democracy. The book explores and assesses new and old linkages between knowledge, expertise and democracy, and expands and deepens the current debates by addressing questions such as: What is the role of expertise in Europe? How is knowledge of different kinds embedded in and decisive for democratic practice in contemporary democracies? How are we to assess recent transformations of the expert-citizens and government-civil society relationships from the perspective of democracy, and which paths are viable in the years to come? Finally, the book engages with and gives flesh to the notion of expertisation not only as a broad political and societal diagnosis, but also as a multidimensional and deeply contested process that enfolds in concrete practices and institutional settings.

• Lord, Christopher (2017). Segmentation, Differentiation and the Aims of European Integration. I Grimmel, Andreas (Red.), The Crisis of the European Union Challenges, Analyses, Solutions. Routledge. ISSN 9781138215641. doi: 10.4324/9781315443683-14.
• Lord, Christopher (2017). How can Parliaments contribute to the Legitimacy of the European Semester? Parliamentary Affairs. ISSN 0031-2290. 70(4), s. 673–690. doi: 10.1093/pa/gsx017. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Lord, Christopher (2017). Legitimacy and Democracy. I Smith, Michael; Vanhoonacker, Sophie & Hill, Christopher (Red.), International Relations and the European Union. Oxford University Press. ISSN 9780198737322. doi: 10.1093/oso/9780198732624.003.0008. Vis sammendrag

  New to this Edition: A re-worked Part One examines three key frameworks for understanding the EU's role in the international system. In three new chapters, the EU is examined as sub-system of international relations, as a part of the process of international relations, and as a power in its own right. Fully updated to take account of contemporary issues including the Russia-Ukraine crisis, the migration and refugee crisis, and the UK's decision to leave the EU.

• Lord, Christopher (2017). The legitimacy of exits from the European Union. Journal of European Integration. ISSN 0703-6337. 39(5), s. 499–513. doi: 10.1080/07036337.2017.1333117. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Justifications for extending the Union’s boundaries to include new Member States have been much discussed. Only since the Brexit referendum have justifications for shrinking the Union’s boundaries through withdrawals of Member States received the same attention. This paper uses concepts of historical responsibility to ask whether decisions Member States take together constrain the manner in which any one of them can justifiably exit the Union? It argues that much depends on how far Members States make laws together that are important to the lives of their citizens; that pre-empt their subsequent choices; and which affect their ability to manage collective action problems.

• Lord, Christopher (2017). An indirect legitimacy argument for a directly elected European Parliament. European Journal of Political Research. ISSN 0304-4130. 56(3), s. 512–528. doi: 10.1111/1475-6765.12204. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Can a directly elected European Parliament help deliver standards by which the European Union can be indirectly legitimated through its component national democracies? This article argues that the Union can be indirectly legitimate where it helps member state democracies meet their own obligations to their own publics. The Union can do just that by managing externalities in ways needed to secure core values of justice, democracy and freedom from arbitrary domination within member states. Yet that poses a predicament: for if any one member state has an interest in imposing negative externalities or in freeriding on positive externalities provided by another, then so may its voters and democratic institutions. The article argues a directly elected European Parliament can help manage that predicament both by identifying externalities and by ensuring their regulation meets standards of public control, political equality and justification owed to individual national democracies.

• de Wilde, Pieter & Lord, Christopher (2017). Assessing Actually-Existing Trajectories of EU Politicisation. I de Wilde, Pieter; Leupold, Anna & Schmidtke, Henning (Red.), The Differentiated Politicisation of European Governance. Routledge. ISSN 978-1-138-69521-4. s. 143–161. doi: 10.1080/01402382.2015.1081508.
• de Wilde, Pieter & Lord, Christopher (2016). Assessing actually-existing trajectories of EU politicisation. West European Politics. ISSN 0140-2382. 39(1), s. 145–163. doi: 10.1080/01402382.2015.1081508.
• Lord, Christopher (2015). The United Kingdom, a once and future (?) non-member state. I Eriksen, Erik Oddvar & Fossum, John Erik (Red.), The European Union's non-members: Independence under hegemony?. Routledge. ISSN 9781138922457. doi: 10.4324/9781315751030-12.
• Leruth, Benjamin & Lord, Christopher (2015). Differentiated integration in the European Union: a concept, a process, a system or a theory? Journal of European Public Policy. ISSN 1350-1763. 22(6), s. 754–763. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2015.1021196.
• Lord, Christopher (2015). Utopia or dystopia? Towards a normative analysis of differentiated integration. Journal of European Public Policy. ISSN 1350-1763. 22(6), s. 783–798. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2015.1020839. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Lord, Christopher (2014). On the parliamentary control of a reformed monetary union? I Fossum, John Erik & Menendez, Agustin Jose (Red.), The European Union in crises or the European Union as crises?. ARENA Centre for European Studies. ISSN 978-82-93137-46-7. s. 611–637.
• Lord, Christopher (2014). Problems of Compound Representation in the European Union After Lisbon. I Foret, François & Rittelmeyer, Yann-Sven (Red.), The European Council and European Governance: The Commanding Heights of the EU. Routledge. ISSN 978-0-415-85733-8. s. 167–185.
• Lord, Christopher & Tamvaki, Dionysia (2013). The politics of justification? Applying the ‘Discourse Quality Index’ to the study of the European Parliament. European Political Science Review. ISSN 1755-7739. 5(1), s. 27–54. doi: 10.1017/S1755773911000300.
• Lord, Christopher (2013). The European Union: Parliamentary Wasteland or Parliamentary Field? I Fossum, John Erik & Crum, Ben (Red.), Practices of Inter-parliamentary Coordination in International Politics: The European Union and Beyond. ECPR Press. ISSN 9781907301308.
• Lord, Christopher (2013). A European Re-invention of Indirect Legitimacy? I Zaum, Dominik (Red.), Legitimating International Organizations. Oxford University Press. ISSN 978-0-19-967209-7. s. 179–195. doi: 10.1093/acprof%3Aoso/9780199672097.003.0009.
• Lord, Christopher (2013). The democratic legitimacy of codecision. Journal of European Public Policy. ISSN 1350-1763. 20(7), s. 1056–1073. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2013.795400.
• Lord, Christopher & Pollak, Johannes (2013). The Pitfalls of Representation as Claims-Making in the European Union. Journal of European Integration. ISSN 0703-6337. 35(5), s. 517–530. doi: 10.1080/07036337.2013.799941.
• Lord, Christopher & Pollak, Johannes (2013). Unequal but democratic? Equality according to Karlsruhe. Journal of European Public Policy. ISSN 1350-1763. 20(2), s. 190–205. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2013.746116.
• Lord, Christopher (2013). No representation without justification? Appraising standards of justification in European Parliament debates. Journal of European Public Policy. ISSN 1350-1763. 20(2), s. 243–259. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2013.746123.
• Lord, Christopher (2012). A Democratic Achievement and not just a Democratic Deficit. I Zimmermann, Hübert & Dür, Andreas (Red.), Key Controversies in European Integration. Palgrave Macmillan. ISSN 9781137006158. s. 71–79.
• Lord, Christopher & Pollak, Johannes (2012). Unequal Representation in the European Parliament. A Comment on the Ruling by the German Constitutional Court on the Lisbon Treaty. I Evas, Tatjana; Liebert, Ulrike & Lord, Christopher (Red.), Multilayered Representation in the European Union. Parliaments, Courts and the Public Sphere. Nomos. ISSN 978-3-8329-7218-9. s. 59–72. doi: 10.5771/9783845235745-59.
• Evas, Tatjana; Liebert, Ulrike & Lord, Christopher (2012). Multilayered Representation Across the European Union in Dialogue: Introduction. I Evas, Tatjana; Liebert, Ulrike & Lord, Christopher (Red.), Multilayered Representation in the European Union. Parliaments, Courts and the Public Sphere. Nomos. ISSN 978-3-8329-7218-9. s. 11–24. doi: 10.5771/9783845235745-11.
• Lord, Christopher (2012). A democratic audit framework. I Eriksen, Erik Oddvar & Fossum, John Erik (Red.), Rethinking Democracy and the European Union. Routledge. ISSN 978-0-415-60557-1. s. 39–56.
• Lord, Christopher (2011). The Quality of Democracy. I Góra, Magdalena & Zielińska, Katarzyna (Red.), Democracy, State and Society. European Integration in Central and Eastern Europe. Jagiellonian University Press. ISSN 978-83-233-3208-4. s. 29–36.
• Lord, Christopher (2011). The political theory and practice of parliamentary participation in the Common Security and Defence Policy. Journal of European Public Policy. ISSN 1350-1763. 18(8), s. 1133–1150. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2011.615202.
• Lord, Christopher (2011). Legitimate and Democratic? The EU's International Role. I Hill, Christopher & Smith, Michael (Red.), International Relations and the European Union. Oxford University Press. ISSN 9780199544806. doi: 10.1093/hepl/9780198737322.003.0009.

Se alle arbeider i Cristin

• Lord, Christopher James; Bursens, Peter; Biévre, Dirk De; Trondal, Jarle & Wessel, Ramses A. (2022). The Politics of Legitimation in the European Union. Legitimacy Recovered? Routledge. ISBN 9781032101408. 308 s.
• Evas, Tatjana; Liebert, Ulrike & Lord, Christopher (2012). Multilayered Representation in the European Union. Parliaments, Courts and the Public Sphere. Nomos. ISBN 978-3-8329-7218-9. 260 s.

Se alle arbeider i Cristin

• Fossum, John Erik; Lord, Christopher James & Leiren, Merethe Dotterud (2022). Episode 5 of the podcast series ‘Good Neighbours? The UK and Europe after Brexit'. [Internett]. Soundcloud.
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). From Consent to Obligation. Rethinking the Indirect Legitimation of the European Union by Member State Democracies.
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). Autonomy or Domination? Two Faces of Differentiated Integration.
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). Autonomy or Domination? The two faces of Differentiated Integration.
• Lord, Christopher James (2021). Is the European Union sufficiently democratic?
• Lord, Christopher (2020). Conflicting Sovereignties and the Brexit state.
• Lord, Christopher (2020). An Indirect Legitimacy Argument for Representation Beyond the State.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Brexit and the European political order.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Money as power. Implications for ECB Independence and Epistocracy.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Populism and the European Parliament Elections 2019.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Interdemocracy Externalities and Collective Will Formation.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Power, Stateness and Legitimacy Crisis in the European Union.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Power, Money and Knowledge. The Case of the European Central Bank.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Presentation to the Defence Sub-Commitee of the European Parliament on accountability and the Common Security and Defence Policy.
• Lord, Christopher (2019). Conference paper on Justice, Legitimacy and Differentiated Inegration.
• Lord, Christopher (2018). Referendums and Democratic Theory.
• Lord, Christopher (2018). The European Parliament: A Working Parliament without a Public?
• Eriksen, Erik Oddvar & Lord, Christopher (2018). Brexit og EU-kunnskapen. Dagsavisen - Nye Meninger.
• Lord, Christopher (2018). LSE Blog: The Brexit vote has only deepened the political and social divisions within British society . Vis sammendrag

  The UK is now one of the most unequal societies in Europe. The country’s acute territorial differences are only likely to multiply in the coming years. The polarisation between the political right and left is staggering. The society is also now divided by generations. In light of the above, Christopher Lord (ARENA) argues that Brexit is both a product of the breakdown in the British social and political system and a likely source of further crises within it.

• Lord, Christopher (2018). Status of Brexit.
• Lord, Christopher (2018). The Brexit debate: What role for the EES?
• Lord, Christopher (2017). The known unknowns of Brexit, blogginnlegg 15122017 .
• Lord, Christopher (2017). Three Models of Legitimacy Crisis.
• Lord, Christopher (2017). On Brexit (the panel "Looking in, looking out: Brexit and Britain's European partners).
• Lord, Christopher (2017). Why there is no justification for parliaments playing a lesser role in external rather than internal decisions.
• Lord, Christopher (2017). Democratic Assessment and Illiberal Democracy.
• Lord, Christopher (2017). Brexit, historical responsibility and the legitimacy of withdrawals from the European Union. Are there any implications for global justice?
• Lord, Christopher (2017). Crisis and Disintegration: The Paradigmatic Case of the United Kingdom.
• Eldholm, Marit; Eriksen, Erik Oddvar & Lord, Christopher (2016). Democracy lost for non-members of the European Union. [Internett]. sciencenordic.com.
• Lord, Christopher (2016). Brexit, Historical Responsibility and the Legitimacy of Withdrawals from the European Union.
• Lord, Christopher (2016). Crisis and disintegration: The paradigmatic case of the United Kingdom .
• Lord, Christopher (2016). Crisis, differentiation, democratic governance, monetary union and Brexit.
• Lord, Christopher (2016). Parliaments, Foreign Policy and Diplomacy.
• Lord, Christopher (2016). Presentation to DNB Bank on Brexit.
• Lord, Christopher (2016). Debating Brexit.
• Lord, Christopher (2016). Indirect Legitimacy and the European Parliament.
• Lord, Christopher & Eldholm, Marit (2015). Brexit and the UK’s future. [Internett]. sciencenordic.com.
• Eldholm, Marit; Lord, Christopher; Eriksen, Erik Oddvar & Fossum, John Erik (2015). Britenes fire valg etter Brexit. [Internett]. Forskning.no.
• Eriksen, Erik Oddvar; Fossum, John Erik & Lord, Christopher (2015). Is Brexit akin to Independence under Hegemony? Vis sammendrag

  Book launch: The European Union's Non-Members: Independence under Hegemony

• Lord, Christopher (2015). Democracy, Expertise and Power.
• Lord, Christopher (2015). Falling out of love With Norway? Norway in the Brexit debate.
• Lord, Christopher (2015). The United Kingdom and the European Union: Four Futures.
• Lord, Christopher (2015). Externalities and Representation Beyond the State. Lessons from the European Union.
• Lord, Christopher (2015). Which Parliaments should exercise control over a changing Monetary Union?
• Lord, Christopher (2015). Norway and Switzerland in the Brexit debate.
• Lord, Christopher (2015). The European Parliament and the Indirect Legitimacy of the European Union.
• Lord, Christopher (2014). The Legitimacy of Monetary Union. New Challenges.
• Lord, Christopher (2014). Experiments in Democratic Auditing.
• Lord, Christopher (2014). An Indirect Legitimacy Argument for a Directly Elected European Parliament.
• Lord, Christopher (2014). Social Justice, Democracy and European Integration.
• Lord, Christopher (2014). A Plague on all their Houses? Neither Majone, nor Føllesdal/Hix, and, perhaps, not even Sabel/Zeitlin.
• Lord, Christopher (2014). An Indirect Legitimacy argument for a Directly Elected European Parliament. Paper presented to Pademia Conference, Brussels, 12-13 June 2014.
• Lord, Christopher (2013). Utopia or Dystopia? Towards a Normative Analysis of Differentiated Integration.
• Lord, Christopher (2017). Fragmentation, Segmentation and Centre Formation Some Thoughts on the UK and European Integration from 1950 to Brexit. University of Oslo/ ARENA Centre for European Studies. 2017(3). Vis sammendrag

  It might be thought that Brexit is just a case of the UK getting honest with itself and its partners. The UK never really accepted European integration. Hence, it should never have joined a body committed to an ‘ever closer Union between the peoples of Europe’ (even allowing for the convenient plural of the word ‘peoples’). Yet, the UK’s attitude to integration has not solely been one of aversion to European centre formation. If centre formation, segmentation into a differentially integrated Union and fragmentation are three possible trajectories of European integration, the UK contributed to a major act of European centre formation: namely, the formation of the single market. Elsewhere, British Governments settled for largely constructive forms of segmentation. One thing the UK has not been is a source of fragmentation. Of course, Brexit may change that. Brexit may be both necessary and impossible: something the British Government must do and something it cannot do. Brexit could fragment both the UK and the EU. Yet, a continuation of ‘constructive segmentation’ by other means – or even renewed centre formation – cannot be fully ruled out as possible outcomes of the Brexit referendum.

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