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Mona Bekkhus

Professor - PROMENTA

Email mona.bekkhus@psykologi.uio.no

Phone +47 22 85 04 97

Room V04-14

Available hours By agreement

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Visiting address Forskningsveien 3A Harald Schjelderups hus 0373 Oslo

Postal address Postboks 1094 Blindern 0317 Oslo

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Academic interests

My research is focused on developmental psycopathology and how psychososcial risk and biological mechanisms is associated with individual differences during sensitive periods of development, from early in life to adolescents. In particular my research is focused on how early adversity influence developmental psychopathology, using large scale cohort data and family design. Of particular interest in this context are the transactional mechanisms between children’s genetic liabilities and environmental influences that explain the links between behaviour problems or emotional difficulties, on the one hand, and child adjustment, on the other hand (resilience).

My current research involve examining causal mechanisms using informative designs (twin and siblings studies) to examine associations between Early environmental stress, epigenetic mechanisms, gene-environment interactions and psychopathology in early childhood to adolescents this research is finances by the Research council of Norway.

More recently, I am focusing on a large study on sex-specific pathways to adolescent depression financed by DAM. In this study we rely on user involvement and involve both adolescents themselves, health practitioners and we collaborate with Fremsam and the Norwegian women's health organization.

I collaborate with researchers in Rotterdam, Netherlands, Brisbane, (Australia) and Qubec, Ottowa (CANADA), and the UK in understanding how early environmental stress and social relationships (family and peers) is associated with child psychopathology and resilience.

Teaching

Psyc 2410 Wechsler test (Clinical psychology)

Psy2205, Bio-Psychosocial development (BA)

Psy4205, Prevention of mental health disorder (MA)

pSY4521, Project Development, (MA)

TRACE Research Group:

Early Risk and Developmental Psychopathology (Project Leader)

To date, multiple studies have shown that adult disorders can be traced back to early stress, often referred to as DOHaD or the programming hypothesis.

Studies on both animals and humans have found that exposure to prenatal stress is associated with later mental health disorders. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate early risk pathways for prevention. Re-thinking the programming hypothesis, funded by the Research Council, aims to examine the link between prenatal stress, DNA methylation at birth, and psychopathology in children and adolescents. Additionally, a sub-project investigates parent-of-origin effects using family-child trios.

In a series of related articles, TRACE explores the role of DNA methylation at birth, particularly in relation to epigenetically accelerated aging.

Developmental Pathways to Depression in Girls (Project Leader)

Depression is a widespread, costly, and disabling mental disorder worldwide. Although the prevalence of depression among teenage girls has significantly increased in recent decades, the causes of depression in girls remain largely unknown.

The study aims to test the hypothesis that girls are more vulnerable to environmental stressors due to biological factors. Specifically, we aim to explore the interaction between epigenetic and genetic mechanisms and environmental risk factors to understand the underlying causes contributing to girls' increased vulnerability to depression.

In close collaboration with user representatives, the project will:
a) Generate deeper insights into gender-specific developmental processes in depression,
b) Promote a new model of biological and environmental risks for depression in girls,
c) Identify symptom clusters that may differ for girls and boys, and
d) Identify characteristics that reduce individual risk and provide evidence-based foundations for interventions aimed at reducing depression in teenage girls.

We will use data from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), advanced genetically informed longitudinal methods, combined with diagnoses from national registers. MoBa is ongoing and managed by the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, following 114,000 pregnancies recruited between 1998 and 2008. Currently, twelve waves of questionnaires have been collected from mothers, and twice from fathers. Additionally, adolescents have self-reported data at ages 14, 16-17 and 18. High-quality, controlled genetic data is available.

This study is interdisciplinary, involving experts in mental health, developmental psychology, genetics, epigenetics, health promotion, and prevention. It is funded by the DAM Foundation and will be conducted in collaboration with the Norwegian Women’s Health Association and FREMSAM.

Growing Up with a Clinically Depressed Parent: A Mixed-Method Study of Adolescent Mental Health and Resilience (Project Leader)

Children of parents with depression face significant genetic and environmental risks for developing mental disorders themselves. This project aims to identify pathways to mental health resilience in adolescents who grow up with a depressed parent. Understanding what explains adolescents' resilience in the face of such risks is crucial for prevention.

In this project, we shift the focus of research to explore what contributes to good mental health in adolescents with parents suffering from depression. Using a mixed-methods design, we will first analyse data from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study alongside registry data. Then, through a qualitative study, we will interview adolescents about their experiences as dependents of parents with mental illness. We will examine their well-being and focus on the role of online and offline social relationships in their vulnerability and resilience in daily life.

The study is funded by the Norwegian Women’s Health Association.

Mental Health Among Youth During the COVID-19 Pandemic (Project Leader)

The need for belonging and the desire for relationships are fundamental to human development. Children's interactions with peers are often unstructured and based on their own choice of companions, in contrast to interactions with parents. Friendships are among the most significant types of peer relationships, playing a crucial role in developing social competence and well-being during preschool years. During adolescence, peer relationships become even more critical as closeness, intimacy, and trust are emphasized.

This research project aims to better understand how youth experienced life during the COVID-19 pandemic. We are inviting youth aged 16–18 to participate in a survey exploring their experiences of loneliness and friendship during a period when schools were closed, and social contact was severely limited. We investigate how these changes affected daily life, including time spent on social media, the internet, and gaming, and explore new platforms for interaction with friends.

Parenting Practices (Co-researcher)

Parents play a central role in child development. Existing literature provides extensive knowledge about how parenting practices are linked to child development and how different parenting styles influence children's well-being and mental health. However, there is limited insight into current parenting practices and the reasons behind parents' approaches. Evidence suggests that parental background, including childhood care and abuse, personality, partner's parenting style, neighborhood factors, economic conditions, and cultural backgrounds, influences parenting styles. Yet, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of the determinants of parenting practices, especially the distinction between environmental and genetic factors.

This project will provide groundbreaking knowledge about parenting practices in Norway, benefiting institutions such as the Directorate for Children, Youth, and Family Affairs (Bufdir), practitioners, parents, and the broader research community. Our chosen themes, topics, target groups, and methods address existing gaps in the field. The project is funded by Bufdir.

The Friendship Study (Project Leader)

This longitudinal, prospective study examines children's friendships and their overall emotional and behavioral functioning. We have followed the children for four years and will continue tracking them into adolescence. A key focus is how outdoor environments relate to cognition, mental health, and academic performance

Higher education and employment history

Mona has a Ph.d. in Psychology From the University of Oslo.

Mona has been a guest researcher at the Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College, London and Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane Australia.
Mona has experience from the working within the field of drug addiction and Psychiatry, she has also worked In School Psychology, in P.P. Services

Cooperation

Mona is collaborating with researchers from

InDepth Lab, Erasmus MC, The Nederlands.

Oxford University, Kings College London, Uk.

University of London and Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane Australia. University of Ottawa, and Québec University, Canada.

Tags: Developmental psychology, PROMENTA

Scientific dissemination:

Laura Schellhas, Giulietta S Monasso, Janine F Felix, Vincent WV Jaddoe , Peiyuan Huang, Sílvia Fernández-Barrés, Martine Vrijheid, Giancarlo Pesce, Isabella Annesi-Maesano, Christian M Page, Anne-Lise Brantsæter, Mona Bekkhus, Siri E Håberg, Stephanie London, Marcus R Munafò^,Luisa Zuccolo, Gemma C Sharp(accepted Nov.2023).Maternal caffeine consumption during pregnancy and offspring cord blood DNA methylation: a meta-analysis of epigenome-wide association studies (Epigenomics)
Ebad Fardzadeh, Haghish; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Obaidi, Milan; Qin, Ping; Stänicke, Line Indrevoll; Bekkhus, Mona; Laeng, Bruno & Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi (2023). Unveiling Adolescent Suicidality: Holistic Analysis of Protective and Risk Factors Using Multiple Machine Learning Algorithms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891, doi: 10.1007/s10964-023-01892-6..
Szekely, E., Laplante, D., Tiermeier, H., Evans J., Pearson, R., Bekkhus, M., Bakermans-kranenburg, M., van Ijzendoorn., Wazana, A., (2023). The DREAM BIG project as a model for harmonizing early measures of parental care and parent child interactions across epidemiological cohorts. Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol 2, https://doi.org/10.3389/frcha.2023.1206922 .
Hygen, B., Skalincka, V., Coplan, R.J., Fredriksen, E., von Soest, T., & Bekkhus, M. (In press). Links between In-Person vs Digital Interactions, Digital Media Use Loneliness, and Mental Health Problems among Norwegian Adolescents in the Initial Stages of COVID-19 Restrictions Journal of Media Psychology. Journal of Media Psychology.
Svendsrud, H, Fredriksen, E., Moe, V., Smith, L., Tsotsi, S., Ullebø, K., Vatne, G.B., Kaasen, A., & Bekkhus, M., Becoming Dad: Expectant fathers attachment style and prenatal representations of the unborn child. Children 8;10(7):1187. doi: 10.3390/children10071187
Tsotsi, S., Goh, S., Coplan, R., Bølstad, E., Czajkowski, N. O., Smajlagic, D., & Bekkhus, M. (2023). Co-Occurrence of Internalizing Difficulties and Aggression in Early Childhood and Risk of Later Mental Health Problems: The Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/gd34y International Journal of Behavioural Development.
Ferschmann, L., Overweg, I., Dégeilh, F., Bekkhus, M., Havdahl, A., von Soest, T., & Tamnes, C. K. Development of prosocial behavior and inhibitory control in late childhood: A longitudinal exploration of sex differences and reciprocal relations. Child Development (2023) https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/w9mbe
Oftedal, A., Tsotsi, S., Kaasen, A., Mayerhofer, L., E, Roysamb., Smajlagic, D., Tanbo, T.G., Bekkhus, M. (2023). Anxiety and depression among expected parents during pregnancies conceived from assisted reproductive treatment and spontaneous conception. Human Reproduction Volume 38, Issue 9, September 2023, Pages 1755–1760. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dead133
Stanicke, L., Olsen P., Bekkhus, M (2023). “Everything turned upside down” – A thematic analysis of adolescents’ experiences of everyday life during COVID-19 restrictions. Scandinavian Journal of Public health.
Bekkhus, M., McVarnock, A., Coplan, R. J., Ulset, V., & Kraft, B. (2023). Developmental changes in the structure of shyness and internalizing symptoms from early to middle childhood: A network analysis. Child Development, 00, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/ cdev.1390
Ulset, V., Borge, A.I.H., Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Bekkhus, M. (2023). Is time spent outdoors in daycare linked with attentional control and academic achievement in adolescence? Examining cognitive and social pathways. Journal of Environmental Psychology,
Oftedal, A., Bekkhus, M., Haugen, G., Hjemdal, O., Czajkowski, N.O., Kaasen. (2022). A. Long-term Impact of Diagnosed Fetal Anomaly on Prenatal Traumatic Stress, Resilience and Relationship satisfaction. Journal of Pediatric Psychology
Bekkhus M, Lee Y, Samuelsen SO, Tsotsi S, Magnus P (2022). Maternal and paternal anxiety during pregnancy: Comparing the effects on behavioral problems in offspring. PLoS ONE 17(10): e0275085. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275085
Oftedal, A, Bekkhus, M, Haugen, GN, Czajkowski, NO, Kaasen, A. (2022). The impact of diagnosed fetal anomaly, diagnostic severity and prognostic ambiguity on parental depression and traumatic stress: a prospective longitudinal cohort study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 101 (11), 1291-1299. doi: 10.1111/aogs.14453
Clayborne ZM, Nilsen W, Torvik FA, Gustavson K, Bekkhus M, Gilman SE, Khandaker GM, Fell DB, Colman I. (2022) Positive maternal mental health attenuates the associations between prenatal stress and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi: 10.1007/s00787-022-01999-4.
Bekkhus M, Lee Y, Brandlistuen RE, Samuelsen SO, Magnus P. (2021). Maternal Anxiety and Infants Birthweight and Length of Gestation. A sibling design. BMC Psychiatry;21(1):609. doi: 10.1186/s12888-021-03620-5.
Oftedahl, A., Bekkhus, M., Haugen, G., Braithswaite, E., Bollerslev, J., Godang, K., Thorsby, P.M., Kaasen, A. (2021). Changes in maternal cortisol, cortisol binding globulin and cortisone levels following diagnosis of fetal anomaly. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23;135:105574. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105574. Epub
Clayborne, Z., Nilsen, W., Torvik, F., Gustavson, K., Bekkhus, M., Gilman, S., . . . Colman, I. (2021). Prenatal maternal stress, child internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and the moderating role of parenting: Findings from the Norwegian mother, father, and child cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 1-11. doi:10.1017/S0033291721004311
Bekkhus, M., Baldwin, D., Coplan, R.J., von Soest, T., Skaret, S., Ulset, V., Borge, A.I.H. (2021). Examining Launch and Snare Effects in the Longitudinal Associations between Shyness and Socio-Emotional Difficulties in Childhood. Social Development, DOI: 10.1111/sode.12528
Ulset, V., Czajkowski, N., Staton, S., Smith, S., Pattinson, C., Allan, A., Thorpe, K., Bekkhus, M. (2021). Environmental Light Exposure, Rest-Activity Rhythms, and Symptoms of Inattention and Hyperactivity: An Observational Study of Australian Preschoolers. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 73. doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101560
Bekkhus, M., Oftedal., A., Braithswaithe, E., Haugen, G., & Kaasen, G. (2020). Paternal psychological stress after detection of fetal anomaly during pregnancy. A prospective longitudinal observational study. Frontiers in Psychology (published, online 29.07.20). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01848
Ulset, V. S., Czajkowski, N. O., Kraft, B., Kraft, P., Wikenius, E., Kleppestø, T. H., & Bekkhus, M. (2019). Are unpopular children more likely to get sick? Longitudinal links between popularity and infectious diseases in early childhood. PloS One, 14(9), e0222222. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222222
Lezhnieva, N., Fredriksen, P.M., Bekkhus, M. (2018). Peer relationship and quality of life in 11-12-year-old children: The Health Oriented Pedagogical Project (HOPP). Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 46 (21_suppl), 74-81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494818767788
Bekkhus, M., Lee, Y. Nordhagen, R. Magnus, P. Samuelsen, S.O., & Borge, A.I.H. (2018). Re-examining the link between prenatal maternal anxiety and child emotional difficulties, using a sibling design. International Journal of Epidemiology. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyx186
Ulset, V., Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M.R., Bekkhus, M., & Borge, A.I.H. (2017). Time spent outdoors during preschool: Links with children's cognitive and behavioral development. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 52, s 69- 80 doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.007
Bekkhus, M., Brendgen, M.R.,Czajkowski, N.O Vitaro, F.,; Dionne, G., & Boivin, M. (2016). Associations between Sibling Relationship Quality and Friendship Quality in Early Adolescence: Looking at the Case of Twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics 19(2), s 125- 135. doi: 10.1017/thg.2016.9 .
Küenzlen, H.,Bekkhus, M.,; Thorpe, K., & Borge, A.I.H. (2016). Potential traumatic events in early childhood and behavioural resilience: a longitudinal case control study. European Journal of Developmental Psychology13(3), s 394- 406. doi: 10.1080/17405629.2016.1150174 .
Bekkhus, M., Staton, S., Borge, A.I.H. & Thorpe, K., (2014). Do twins differ from single-born children on rates of behavioral difficulty in early childhood? a study of sibling relationship risk factors. Twin Research and Human Genetics. ISSN 1832-4274. 17(4), s 288- 295. doi: 10.1017/thg.2014.39
Bekkhus, M. Rutter, M. Barker, E. D & Borge, A.I.H. (2011). The Role of Pre- and Postnatal Timing of Family Risk Factors on Child Behavior at 36 months. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 39(4), s 611- 621 doi: 10.1007/s10802-010-9477-z
Bekkhus, M., Rutter, M., Maughan, B., & Borge, A.I.H. (2011). The effects of group daycare in the context of paid maternal leave and high-quality provision. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. ISSN 1740-5629. 8(6), s 681- 696. doi: 10.1080/17405629.2011.602232
Bekkhus, M., Staton, S., Borge, A.I.H., & Thorpe, K. (2011). Conflict, Closeness and Comfort: The Inter-Twin Relationship as a Risk Factor for Behavioral Difficulties. Twin Research and Human Genetics. ISSN 1832-4274. 14(5), s 444- 451 . doi: 10.1375/twin.14.5.444
Bekkhus, M; Skjøthaug, T., Nordhagen, R., & Borge, A.I.H (2010). Intrauterine exposure to caffeine and inattention/overactivity in children. Acta Paediatrica, 99(6), s 925- 928. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01744.x

Kraft, Brage; MacSweeney, Niamh Anne; Page, Christian Magnus; Lyle, Robert; Tsotsi, Stella & Ulset, Vidar Sandsaunet [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2026). The effect of prenatal maternal stress on adolescent internalizing symptoms and the genetic moderation of executive functioning and prefrontal cortex. Psychological Medicine. ISSN 0033-2917. 56. doi: 10.1017/S0033291726105431. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: Prenatal maternal stress is a known risk factor for later emotional problems, yet not all exposed offspring develop psychopathology. Executive functioning and prefrontal cortex structure and activity may buffer these effects, but it remains unclear whether genetic predis positions in these domains moderate associations with adolescent internalizing symptoms. Methods: We examined 3,111 adolescents (1,881 females, 1,230 males). Prenatal stress was measured via a cumulative index across four domains. Internalizing symptoms were self reported at ages 14 and 16. Genetic predisposition for executive functioning was indexed using a polygenic score (PGS) derived from adult samples, applied here to estimate genetic predis position for executive functioning in adolescence. We also estimated a prefrontal cortex PGS based on cortical thickness and activation in six prefrontal regions, with a composite index derived from the first principal axis summarizing these measures. Results: Higher prenatal stress was significantly associated with more internalizing symptoms in adolescence. Female sex and maternal genetic risk for internalizing symptoms were also associated with higher symptom levels. Neither genetic disposition for executive functioning nor prefrontal cortex moderated this association overall. However, a weak interaction emerged at age 16, indicating that a genetic disposition for higher executive functioning was associated with greater internalizing symptoms under high stress exposure. Conclusions: Prenatal maternal stress predicted increased adolescent internalizing symptoms, with limited evidence for moderation by genetic predisposition for executive functioning. Higher genetic potential for executive functioning may confer increased sensitivity to early stress under certain developmental conditions.
Schellhas, Laura; Luo, Mannan; Felix, Janine F.; Page, Christian Magnus; Bekkhus, Mona & Munafò, Marcus R. [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2026). Childhood internalising symptoms at ages 3 and 6: a meta-analysis of epigenome-wide associations from cord and peripheral blood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.70186. Full text in Research Archive
Austerberry, Chloe; Corfield, Elizabeth Claire; Havdahl, Alexandra; Smajlagic, Dinka; Eek, Brandlistuen Ragnhild & Wang, Mari Vaage [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2026). Student–teacher relationships as a mediator of children's education-linked genetics: results from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.70179. Full text in Research Archive
Tsotsi, Stella; Coplan, Robert J.; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi & Bekkhus, Mona (2026). Co-occurrence of internalizing difficulties and aggression in preschoolers and mental health outcomes in adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development. ISSN 0165-0254. doi: 10.1177/01650254261438685. Full text in Research Archive
Svendsrud, Hedvig; Fredriksen, Eivor; Lund, Olaf; Moe, Vibeke; Smith, Lars & Helmikstøl, Beate [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2026). Fathers’ prenatal risk and infant mental health: The role of caregiving warmth. Developmental Psychology. ISSN 0012-1649. 62(11), p. 2322–2334. doi: 10.1037/dev0002191. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Fathers can influence their children's behavioral and emotional development positively or negatively. Limited research has explored the impact of fathers' prenatal risk factors and paternal postnatal warmth on infant socioemotional development. This novel study, characterized by its use of two warmth measures, a large Nordic cohort of fathers and a longitudinal prenatal-to-postnatal design, investigates (a) the longitudinal direct effects of prenatal paternal cumulative risk on infant externalizing and internalizing behaviors at 18 months and (b) whether paternal caregiving warmth at 12 months, assessed by paternal self-reports as well as observed by dyadic interactions, moderates these associations. Data were drawn from the Little in Norway study, a large cohort of fathers (N = 864, 97.6% cohabiting, Mage = 32.18 years, 67.2% reported >3 years higher education, 4.7% belonged to an ethnic minority group) and their infants. Path analyses showed that higher paternal prenatal cumulative risk predicted increased infant externalizing (β = 0.14, p = .002) and internalizing (β = 0.09, p = .039) symptoms. Paternal self-reported warmth predicted lower externalizing symptoms, but no association was found for internalizing symptoms. Neither self-reported nor observed paternal warmth was found to moderate the relation between paternal prenatal risk and infant externalizing or internalizing symptoms, suggesting that paternal warmth may not serve as a single protective factor in buffering the potential detrimental effects of paternal cumulative risk on infant mental health outcomes. Findings underscore the importance of including fathers in developmental research, early interventions, and social policies, beginning in the prenatal period. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
Severinsen, Yvonne; Ystrom, Eivind; Eftedal, Nikolai Haahjem; Nygaard, Egil; Bekkhus, Mona & Viana, Karine Porpino [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2026). Determinants of Parental Emotion Socialization Behaviors: Insights From a Large‐Scale Population‐Based Family Study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. ISSN 0036-5564. 67(4), p. 953–971. doi: 10.1111/sjop.70082. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
ABSTRACT Parental emotion socialization behaviors (ESBs) are essential for child development and are typically understood as influenced by factors related to three domains: the parent, the child, and the family context. However, it remains unclear how parents' childhood experiences with ESBs should be represented within these conceptual frameworks. Addressing the complexity of ESBs, the present study examined predictors across three theoretically derived domains and additionally included parents' recollected ESBs as a parent‐level factor. Questionnaire data were collected from a large population‐based cohort of Norwegian mothers and fathers ( n = 4207; 2460 mothers) with children aged 3 to 13 years ( M = 7.4 years). Supportive and non‐supportive ESBs were examined separately through hierarchical regression models incorporating parent, context, and child factors. The three domains collectively accounted for 28% of the variance in supportive ESBs and 29% in non‐supportive ESBs. The results clearly emphasized parental factors, with parent gender and recollected ESBs being the most influential predictors. Other parent factors, such as perceived parenting stress, alcohol use, and the personality traits agreeableness and openness, also showed unique effects across both types of ESBs. Among contextual factors, education, income, and country of birth predicted non‐supportive ESBs but not supportive ESBs. Child age and birth order were linked with supportive ESBs, whereas only child age predicted non‐supportive ESBs. Findings highlight the importance of parent characteristics, particularly gender and recollected emotion socialization from the family of origin, in predicting current parental ESBs beyond contextual and child‐related factors.
Svendsrud, Hedvig; Bekkhus, Mona; Lund, Olaf; Shai, Dana; Spencer, Rose & Smith, Lars [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2026). Does expectant fathers' attachment style or depressive mood relate to their embodied mentalizing capacity of their 12-month-old infant? Acta Psychologica. ISSN 0001-6918. 263, p. 1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106224. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Parental embodied mentalizing is about how parents show with their body that they hold in mind their infants' mind. The main study's aim was to explore what influences fathers' embodied mentalizing. A random sample of 200 fathers and their 12-month-old infants were drawn from a large longitudinal, population-based dataset, the "Little in Norway (LiN)" study. Fathers' partner related attachment style was assessed at enrollment, symptoms of depression were measured four times during pregnancy and at 12 months postpartum, as was also parenting stress. Videotaped father-infant interactions were coded with the Parental Embodied Mentalizing Assessment (PEMA). Results showed that fathers of girls were demonstrating a higher capacity for embodied mentalizing compared to fathers of boys. There were no direct effects of prenatal depressive symptoms or attachment style on fathers embodied mentalizing, suggesting that lower levels of attachment insecurity and depressive symptoms do not necessarily compromise fathers' capacity for embodied mentalizing. However, depressive symptoms during pregnancy increased the likelihood of postpartum depressive symptoms and parenting stress. In combination, these increased risks were related to poorer embodied mentalizing in fathers. This suggests that being depressed both during pregnancy and when the infant is 12 months, as well as experiencing stress in the parenting role, may be risk factors for compromised embodied mentalizing.
Braithwaite, Elizabeth C.; Haftorn, Kristine Løkås; Oftedal, Aurora; Ayorech, Ziada; Kaasen, Anne & Murgatroyd, Christopher [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2025). Associations between lifetime history of depression, prenatal OXTR DNA methylation and breastfeeding outcomes. Clinical Epigenetics. 18(1), p. 1–12. doi: 10.1186/s13148-025-02030-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Abstract Background Women with depression are less likely to breastfeed and experience more breastfeeding challenges. Potential biological mechanisms that link maternal depression with poor breastfeeding outcomes have not been investigated. This study examined associations between lifetime history of depression (LHD), prenatal oxytocin receptor gene ( OXTR ) DNA methylation, and breastfeeding outcomes. Results Longitudinal observational data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) were analysed (N = 3607). LHD was self-reported during pregnancy (week 15). Blood samples were collected at 16–18 weeks of pregnancy, and DNA methylation was measured using the Illumina Methylation EPIC BeadChip 850 K array. This array includes 22 CpG sites on the OXTR gene, which were used in analyses. Mothers self-reported breastfeeding initiation (breastmilk given to child in first month), breastfeeding maintenance (breastmilk given to child for 6 months or more) and breastfeeding problems. Maternal LHD was not associated with OXTR DNA methylation. There was some evidence that prenatal OXTR DNA methylation was associated with breastfeeding outcomes. There was an association between CpG cg26455676 and breastfeeding maintenance to 6 months (odds ratio = 1.59, 95% confidence intervals = 1.11–2.27, raw p = 0.01, adjusted p = 0.04). Higher levels of DNA methylation at CpG cg26455676 was associated with a greater likelihood of maintaining breastfeeding to 6 months. Conclusions This highly novel study highlights the intriguing possibility that maternal prenatal DNA methylation at genes important for breastfeeding may be associated with breastfeeding experiences. Further understanding of vastly differing breastfeeding experiences would assist with the targeting efforts to support breastfeeding women, particularly those who are vulnerable, such as mothers who have depression.
Schuurmans, Isabel K.; Smajlagic, Dinka; Baltramonaityte, Vilte; Malmberg, Anni L.K.; Neumann, Alexander & Creasey, Nicole [Show all 18 contributors for this article] (2025). Genetic Susceptibility to Neurodevelopmental Conditions Is Associated With Neonatal DNA Methylation Patterns in the General Population: An Individual Participant Data Meta-Analysis. Biological Psychiatry. ISSN 0006-3223. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2025.09.005. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and schizophrenia (SCZ) are highly heritable and linked to disruptions in fetal neurodevelopment. Epigenetic processes, such as DNA methylation (DNAm), are considered a key pathway of interest. However, it is unclear whether 1) genetic susceptibility to neurodevelopmental conditions (NDCs) is associated with DNAm patterns already at birth, 2) DNAm patterns are unique or shared across conditions, and 3) neonatal DNAm patterns can be leveraged to enhance genetic prediction of neurodevelopmental outcomes. METHODS: We conducted epigenome-wide meta-analyses of genetic susceptibility to ASD, ADHD, and SCZ (measured with polygenic scores [PGSs]) and cord blood DNAm in 4 European population–based cohorts (npooled = 5802; 50.2% female). We estimated DNAm pattern overlap between PGSs using heterogeneity statistics. Furthermore, we built methylation profile scores for each PGS to test incremental variance explained over genetic data alone in 130 developmental outcomes from birth to 14 years. RESULTS: In probe-level analyses, the SCZ PGS was associated with neonatal DNAm at 246 loci (p < 9 x 10 -8), predominantly in the major histocompatibility complex, supporting an early-origins perspective on SCZ. Functional characterization confirmed strong genetic effects, blood-brain concordance, and enrichment for immune-related pathways. Eight loci were identified for the ASD PGS (mapping to FDFT1 and MFHAS1) and none for the ADHD PGS. Differentially methylated regions were detected across PGSs (130–166 regions). Overall, DNAm signals were largely distinct between conditions. Incorporating neonatal DNAm data in genetic prediction models nominally increased the explained variance for several cognitive and motor outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Genetic susceptibility to NDCs, particularly SCZ, is detectable in cord blood DNAm in the general population.
Tamnes, Christian K.; Bekkhus, Mona; Eilertsen, Maja; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Prydz, Monica Beer & Ystrom, Eivind [Show all 63 contributors for this article] (2025). The nature of the relation between mental well-being and ill-being. Nature Human Behaviour. 9(12), p. 2431–2440. doi: 10.1038/s41562-025-02319-x. Full text in Research Archive
Aksnes, Eira R.; Birkeland, Marianne Skogbrott; Ebrahimi, Omid V.; Bekkhus, Mona; Ferschmann, Lia & Beck, Dani [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2025). Developmental dynamics of symptoms of emotional problems in childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal network analysis. JCPP Advances. doi: 10.1002/jcv2.70079. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Abstract Background Epidemiological studies document increasing incident rates of mental disorders across childhood and adolescence, with mood and anxiety disorders particularly increasing among adolescent females. Research also indicates that these emotional problems have become more prevalent in recent decades. Yet, there is still a lack of understanding of the interrelated development of distinct emotional symptoms from childhood to adolescence. Methods Here, we investigate and compare symptom dynamics in males and females. To accomplish this, we leveraged longitudinal data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children study ( N = 11,120, 50.1% males at baseline). We used five items ( worries , unhappy , nervous , fearful , somatic complaints ) derived from the parent‐reported Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire emotional problems scale, measured at up to seven timepoints (mean age = 9.52, range = 4.0–18.3 years old). We estimated a panel Graphical Vector Autoregressive network model (GVAR) and statistically compared the networks of males and females. Results The temporal network revealed largely reciprocal associations among symptoms, with the strongest edges between fearful–nervous and unhappy–worries ( β = 0.04–0.06). The contemporaneous and between‐person networks showed similar structures, although the between‐person network exhibited fewer but stronger associations, reflecting more stable individual differences. Somatic complaints were weakly connected in the temporal network but more strongly associated in contemporaneous and between‐person networks. Network invariance testing indicated no significant sex differences in average network structure. Conclusion The study delineates the developmental dynamics of emotional symptoms across childhood and adolescence, highlighting bidirectional influences between core symptoms of depression and anxiety, but did not find support for sex differences in their developmental interrelatedness.
Oftedal, Aurora; Kaasen, Anne; Karlsen, Taran; Haugen, Guttorm Nils & Bekkhus, Mona (2025). Maternal Distress in Pregnancies After Previous Fetal Anomaly: A Longitudinal Cohort Study. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. ISSN 1470-0328. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.18343. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Objective To assess mental health throughout pregnancy among women with a history of diagnosis of fetal anomaly. Design Prospective observational study. Setting Tertiary referral centre for fetal medicine. Population Pregnant women with a history of fetal anomaly (study group; n = 75) and women without such a history (comparison group; n = 111). A subgroup of women in the study group ( n = 28) participated in two different pregnancies, where the first had a diagnosis of fetal anomaly and the second did not. Methods Women completed the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and Impact of Events Scale (IES) at four timepoints between gestational age 18 weeks and 36 weeks. Main Outcomes Trajectories of EPDS and IES across time in the study group and comparison group, as well as differences in EPDS and IES in the healthy pregnancy and the pregnancy with a diagnosis of fetal anomaly in the subgroup. Results Having a history of previous diagnosis of fetal anomaly was associated with elevated levels of depression and traumatic stress throughout pregnancy, even in healthy pregnancies (e.g., EPDS mean difference = 2.65, 95% CI [1.91, 3.21]). The difference between groups was largest early in pregnancy and decreased with increasing gestational age. Furthermore, women in the subgroup experienced much higher levels of distress in the pregnancy with a diagnosis of fetal anomaly than in their healthy pregnancy (e.g., EPDS mean difference = 8.7, 95% CI [6.40, 11.15]). Conclusion The results highlight the importance of considering women's history of fetal anomaly and prenatal loss even in healthy pregnancies.
Creasey, Nicole; Schuurmans, Isabel; Tsotsi, Stella; Dafina, Serena; Baltramonaityte, Vilte & Felix, Janine F. [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2025). Prenatal stress, epigenetically-assessed glucocorticoid exposure at birth, and child psychiatric symptoms: A prospective, multi-cohort study. Psychoneuroendocrinology. ISSN 0306-4530. 175. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2025.107388. Full text in Research Archive
Amundsen, Vaarin; Gjesmoe, Amalie; Andreassen, Einar; Bølstad, Evalill; Severinsen, Yvonne & Viana, Karine Porpino [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2025). Alcohol Use and Parental Socialization of Emotion in a Population-Based Sample. Parenting, science and practice. ISSN 1529-5192. doi: 10.1080/15295192.2025.2465988. Full text in Research Archive
Austerberry, Chloe; Zayats, Tetyana; Ronald, Angelica; Corfield, Elizabeth Claire; Smajlagic, Dinka & Havdahl, Alexandra [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2025). Evocative effects of children's education-associated genetics on maternal parenting: results from the Norwegian mother, father and child cohort study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. 67(2), p. 158–170. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.70025. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: It has long been hypothesized that increasing heritability with age of cognitive and educational performance is partly attributable to evocative gene–environment correlation. However, this hypothesis has not been widely tested. Methods: We addressed this gap by examining whether children's education polygenic scores (PGSedu) were associated with maternal self-reported positive and literacy-focused parenting when children were 5 years old, and if evoked parenting differences mediated genetic effects on children's educational outcomes (mother-reported at 6–8 years of age), while controlling for parental PGSedu. We also investigated whether maternal reports of children's language at 5 years old were associated with parenting and mediated genetic effects on educational performance. These questions were addressed in a sample of 83,627 parent-offspring trios from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study, a longitudinal population-based pregnancy cohort. Results: Children's PGSedu were significantly associated with maternal literacy-focused (β = .03, 95% CI [0.01, 0.05], p = .021) but not positive parenting (β = 0.01, 95% CI [−0.02, 0.05], p = .410), and literacy-focused parenting significantly mediated the effects of children's PGSedu on their educational performance (β = 0.01, 95% CI [1 × 10−3, 0.01], p = .023). Children's language was associated with maternal parenting and mediated the effects of children's PGSedu on their educational performance (β = 0.01, 95% CI [3 × 10−3, 0.02], p = .002). Conclusions: These findings support our hypotheses and suggest early language and parenting may be mechanisms implicated in the pathways from children's genetics to their educational outcomes.
Fredriksen, Eivor; Soest, Tilmann Martin von; Bekkhus, Mona; Svendsrud, Hedvig; Smith, Lars & Siqveland, Torill Kandal Sundet [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). Parental Gender and Adult Attachment Style in the Transition to Parenthood: Implications for Parent–Infant Interaction, Parenting Stress, and Parental Leave Practices. Journal of Marriage and Family. ISSN 0022-2445. 88(1), p. 145–159. doi: 10.1111/jomf.70002. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Objective Aiming to broaden our understanding of parental gender differences within the framework of attachment theory, this study explores how parents' prenatal attachment styles relate to parenting stress, parent–infant interaction, and paternity leave, by investigating how attachment styles and gender interact to predict parenting outcomes. Background The attachment system is at the core of parental adjustments during the perinatal period, underscored by the interplay between attachment styles and caregiving behavior. Yet, gender differences in these associations remain poorly understood, despite variations in parenting roles. Methods Families (N = 1036) participating in a prospective community-based study in Norway reported adult attachment orientations during pregnancy. Postnatal data included self-reported parenting stress, observed mother–infant/father–infant interactions, and paternal parental leave uptake. A path analysis was carried out, using multigroup comparisons to investigate parental gender differences. Results Prenatal adult attachment avoidance and anxiety predicted higher parenting stress (range: β = 0.12–0.38), and attachment avoidance predicted higher father–infant interactional difficulties postnatally (β = 0.35). Fathers' attachment insecurities were related to lower uptake of paternity leave through indirect pathways with a small effect size. Associations between attachment avoidance and all parenting outcomes were consistently stronger for fathers than mothers. Conclusion Adult attachment styles among expectant parents are associated with a diverse range of parenting outcomes, with findings revealing gendered patterns in the links between adult attachment and caregiving systems during the perinatal period.
Ferschmann, Lia; Grydeland, Håkon; MacSweeney, Niamh; Beck, Dani; Bos, Marieke G.N. & Norbom, Linn Bonaventure [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2024). The importance of timing of socioeconomic disadvantage throughout development for depressive symptoms and brain structure. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. ISSN 1878-9293. 69. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101449. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Prior studies have reported associations between socioeconomic disadvantage, brain structure and mental health outcomes, but the timing of these relations is not well understood. Using prospective longitudinal data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), this preregistered study examined whether socioeconomic disadvantage related differentially to depressive symptoms (n=3012–3530) and cortical and subcortical structures (n=460–733) in emerging adults, depending on the timing of exposure to socioeconomic disadvantage. Family income in early childhood and own income measured concurrently were both significantly related to depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Similar results were observed for perceived financial strain. In contrast, only family income in early childhood was associated with brain structure in emerging adulthood, with positive associations with intracranial volume and total and regional cortical surface area. The findings suggest that both objective and subjective aspects of one’s financial standing throughout development relate to depressive symptoms in adulthood, but that specifically early life family income is related to brain structural features in emerging adulthood. This suggests that associations between socioeconomic disadvantage and brain structure originate early in neurodevelopment, highlighting the role of timing of socioeconomic disadvantage.
Hygen, Beate Wold; Skalicka, Vera; Coplan, Robert; Soest, Tilmann von; Fredriksen, Eivor & Bekkhus, Mona (2024). Norwegian Adolescents in the Initial Stages of COVID-19 Restrictions. Links Between Interactions, Digital Media Use, Loneliness, and Mental Health Problems. Journal of Media Psychology. ISSN 1864-1105. 36(5). doi: 10.1027/1864-1105/a000401. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in March 2020, the Norwegian government closed schools and limited leisure activities. In this cross-sectional study, we examined how different types of digital versus in-person social interactions and digital media use were associated with loneliness and mental health problems among adolescents during the initial COVID-19 lockdown. Participants (N = 703, 79.7% girls, Mage = 17.3 years) completed a questionnaire assessing loneliness, mental health problems, digital media use, and in-person interactions. Both in-person and digital social interaction (texting) with friends were negatively associated with adolescents’ mental health problems and loneliness. By contrast, time spent alone on screen and on social media was positively related to mental health problems. The findings highlight that during the first weeks of the pandemic and of social distancing, increased interactions (either in-person or digital) among adolescents and their friends coincided with lower lev
Bekkhus, Mona; Oftedal, Aurora; Haugen, Guttorm Nils; Mortensen, Berit & Kaasen, Anne (2024). Acute symptoms of depression and traumatic stress in men and women who terminate pregnancy after detection of fetal anomaly: A prospective observational study. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. ISSN 1470-0328. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.17884. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Objective: To assess acute and long-term stress in men and women after the detection of fetal anomalies leading to pregnancy termination. Design: Prospective observational study. Setting: Tertiary referral centre for fetal medicine. Population: From the initial sample of 180 pregnant women with a fetal anomaly detected by ultrasound examination, a total of 87 women terminated their pregnancy, with 72 partners included in the sample. At the time of detection, the group of women (n = 93) and their partners (n = 81) who did not terminate the pregnancy following a diagnosis were included as a comparison group. Methods: These women and their partners were asked to complete the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Impact of Events Scale (IES) questionnaires, both at the time of initial detection and at 6 weeks after the termination of the pregnancy. Main outcome measures: Responses to the EPDS and the IES at the time of initial detection and at 6 weeks after pregnancy termination. Results: Women who underwent pregnancy termination reported higher symptom levels of depression, but not traumatic stress, prior to the termination than women who chose not to terminate their pregnancy. Among men, there was a difference across depression and all subscales of traumatic stress (e.g. IES intrusion: mean difference 5.31; 95% CI 2.32–8.31). Women experienced more depressive symptoms over time than men (β = 4.33, P < 0.001) and higher symptom levels on all subscales of traumatic stress (e.g. IES intrusion: β = 5.27; P < 0.001). Conclusions: Overall, our study underscores the heightened levels of depression and traumatic stress experienced by prospective parents, particularly prior to the decision to terminate a pregnancy following the detection of a fetal anomaly. Although women generally report more pronounced symptoms, it is noteworthy that men also experience considerable traumatic stress during this challenging time.
Salontaji, Kristina; Haftorn, Kristine Løkås; Sanders, Faye; Page, Christian Magnus; Walton, Esther & Felix, Janine F. [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2024). Gestational epigenetic age and ADHD symptoms in childhood: a prospective, multi-cohort study. Molecular Psychiatry. ISSN 1359-4184. 29, p. 2911–2918. doi: 10.1038/s41380-024-02544-2. Full text in Research Archive
Braithwaite, Elizabeth C.; Oftedal, Aurora; Kaasen, Anne; Ayorech, Ziada & Bekkhus, Mona (2024). A history of depression and prenatal depression are associated with a lower likelihood of breastfeeding initiation and maintenance, and more breastfeeding problems. Archives of Women's Mental Health. ISSN 1434-1816. 28, p. 139–146. doi: 10.1007/s00737-024-01479-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Purpose This study tests the hypotheses that lifetime history of depression, and prenatal depression, are associated with a reduced likelihood of breastfeeding initiation (giving the baby any breastmilk during the first week of life) and breastfeeding maintenance (giving the baby breastmilk for at least 6 months), and a greater likelihood of reporting breastfeeding problems. Methods We analyzed data from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child cohort study (MoBa), N=78,307. Mothers reported a lifetime history of depression during the second trimester of pregnancy, and current symptoms of depression during the third trimester using the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist short version (SCL-8). At six months postpartum, mothers self-reported breastfeeding initiation, maintenance, and difficulties. Results Using binary logistic regression analyses, we report that a lifetime history of depression is associated with a lower likelihood of breastfeeding initiation (OR=0.751, 95%CI=0.650–0.938), breastfeeding maintenance (OR=0.712, 95%CI=0.669–0.785), and a greater likelihood of breastfeeding difficulties (OR=1.86, 95%CI=1.72–2.06). Similarly, prenatal depression was associated with a lower likelihood of breastfeeding initiation (OR=0.904, 95%CI=0.878–0.929), breastfeeding maintenance (OR=0.929, 95%CI=0.920–0.938), and a greater likelihood of breastfeeding difficulties (OR=1.10, 95%CI=1.09–1.12). Results remained largely unchanged when covaried for several confounding variables, including medication use. Conclusion We provide novel evidence that pre-conception and prenatal symptoms of depression are associated with breast-feeding outcomes. This information could be used to identify women very early in pregnancy who may need additional support with breastfeeding. There is also a need to fully understand the biopsychosocial mechanisms that mediate the relationship between depression prior to birth and breastfeeding outcomes.
Fardzadeh, Haghish Ebad; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Obaidi, Milan; Qin, Ping; Stänicke, Line Indrevoll & Bekkhus, Mona [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Unveiling Adolescent Suicidality: Holistic Analysis of Protective and Risk Factors Using Multiple Machine Learning Algorithms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. 53, p. 507–525. doi: 10.1007/s10964-023-01892-6. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Abstract Adolescent suicide attempts are on the rise, presenting a significant public health concern. Recent research aimed at improving risk assessment for adolescent suicide attempts has turned to machine learning. But no studies to date have examined the performance of stacked ensemble algorithms, which are more suitable for low-prevalence conditions. The existing machine learning-based research also lacks population-representative samples, overlooks protective factors and their interplay with risk factors, and neglects established theories on suicidal behavior in favor of purely algorithmic risk estimation. The present study overcomes these shortcomings by comparing the performance of a stacked ensemble algorithm with a diverse set of algorithms, performing a holistic item analysis to identify both risk and protective factors on a comprehensive data, and addressing the compatibility of these factors with two competing theories of suicide, namely, The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide and The Strain Theory of Suicide. A population-representative dataset of 173,664 Norwegian adolescents aged 13 to 18 years (mean = 15.14, SD = 1.58, 50.5% female) with a 4.65% rate of reported suicide attempt during the past 12 months was analyzed. Five machine learning algorithms were trained for suicide attempt risk assessment. The stacked ensemble model significantly outperformed other algorithms, achieving equal sensitivity and a specificity of 90.1%, AUC of 96.4%, and AUCPR of 67.5%. All algorithms found recent self-harm to be the most important indicator of adolescent suicide attempt. Exploratory factor analysis suggested five additional risk domains, which we labeled internalizing problems, sleep disturbance, disordered eating, lack of optimism regarding future education and career, and victimization. The identified factors provided stronger support for The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide than for The Strain Theory of Suicide. An enhancement to The Interpersonal Theory based on the risk and protective factors identified by holistic item analysis is presented.
Oftedal, Aurora; Tsotsi, Stella; Kaasen, Anne; Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Røysamb, Espen & Smajlagic, Dinka [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Anxiety and depression in expectant parents: ART versus spontaneous conception. Human Reproduction. ISSN 0268-1161. 38(9), p. 1755–1760. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dead133. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
STUDY QUESTION: Do expectant parents experience increased anxiety and depression during pregnancies conceived through ART compared to spontaneous conception? SUMMARY ANSWER: Among all expectant parents in the sample, those who conceived through ART reported overall lower levels of anxiety and depression in pregnancy compared to expectant parents who conceived spontaneously, while in the subsample of parents who conceived both through ART and spontaneous conception, expectant mothers experienced increased anxiety and de- pression in early pregnancy following ART compared to spontaneous conception. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Previous research on expectant parents’ psychosocial adjustment in response to ART has found mixed results, with some studies suggesting ART is associated with increased anxiety and depression, and other studies suggesting im- proved mental health or no relationship. Mixed findings may relate to the use of cross-sectional designs that do not account for con- founding differences between groups, or variability in the timing of assessment. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: This prospective cohort study used data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), which includes 2960 pregnant women who underwent ART and 108 183 women who conceived spontaneously. Of these, a subsample of expectant parents had two consecutive pregnancies with one pregnancy resulting from ART and one conceived spontaneously (n 1⁄4 286 women, n 1⁄4 211 partners). Women self-reported their composite symptoms of anxiety and depression at two timepoints during each pregnancy (gestational weeks 17 and 30). Their partners self-reported composite symptoms of anxiety and depression at 17 weeks gestation during each pregnancy. Couples reported their relationship satisfaction at 17 weeks gestation. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANGE: Using a conventional full-cohort analysis we found that ART was associated with less total anxiety and depression and greater relationship satisfaction, compared to spontaneous conception among both women and men. However, in the subsample of parents who experienced both ART and spontaneous pregnancies, ART was associated with in- creased levels of maternal anxiety and depression at gestational age 17weeks (M1⁄41.19), compared to spontaneous pregnancies (M 1⁄4 1.15), 95% CI of the mean difference 0.006, 0.074. At 30 weeks gestation, anxiety and depression were similar across both types of pregnancies. Expectant fathers reported similar levels of anxiety and depression at 17weeks gestation during both pregnancies. Among women relationship satisfaction was higher following ART conception than spontaneous conception. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: There is potential for selection effects in the sample, as women who have conceived through both ART and spontaneous conception in their first two pregnancies are rare. In addition, several factors that may be important predic- tors of mental health in this context, such as previous miscarriages and long-term infertility, were not assessed in the current study. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Our findings indicate that previous discrepancies in the literature may be related to in- herent differences between the groups of parents receiving reproductive treatment and those who do not. This study addresses that limitation by prospectively comparing different types of pregnancies within the same expectant parents. Earlier inconsistencies may also relate to variations in gestational age when anxiety and depression were assessed. By examining symptoms at two timepoints in each pregnancy, we were able to examine the relation between gestational age and symptoms of anxiety and depression.
Ferschmann, Lia; Overweg, Ingrid; Dégeilh, Fanny; Bekkhus, Mona; Havdahl, Alexandra & Soest, Tilmann Martin von [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Development of prosocial behavior and inhibitory control in late childhood: A longitudinal exploration of sex differences and reciprocal relations. Child Development. ISSN 0009-3920. 95(1), p. 313–323. doi: 10.1111/cdev.13978. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Abstract This study examined longitudinal development of prosocial behavior, assessed by the parent‐reported Strength and Difficulty Questionnaire, and inhibitory control, measured by the Opposite Worlds Task, in a sample aged 9 and 12 years ( n = 9468, 49.9% girls, 85.8% White) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. The goal was to assess whether the level of prosocial behavior at age 9 relates to change in inhibitory control, and vice versa. Sex differences were also explored. Latent change score models showed that low inhibitory control in boys at age 9 was associated with more decreases in prosocial behavior from 9 to 12 years of age. This may suggest that interventions targeting inhibitory control in boys may also foster their social competence.
Ulset, Vidar Sandsaunet; Borge, Anne Inger Helmen; Vitaro, Frank; Brendgen, Mara & Bekkhus, Mona (2023). Link of outdoor exposure in daycare with attentional control and academic achievement in adolescence: Examining cognitive and social pathways. Journal of Environmental Psychology. ISSN 0272-4944. 85. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101942. Full text in Research Archive
Schellhas, Laura; Monasso, Giulietta S.; Felix, Janine F.; Jaddoe, Vincent WV; Huang, Peiyuan & Fernández-Barrés, Sílvia [Show all 17 contributors for this article] (2023). Maternal caffeine consumption during pregnancy and offspring cord blood DNA methylation: an epigenome-wide association study meta-analysis. Epigenomics. ISSN 1750-1911. 15(22), p. 1179–1193. doi: 10.2217/epi-2023-0263. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: Prenatal caffeine exposure may influence offspring health via DNA methylation, but no large studies have tested this. Materials & methods: Epigenome-wide association studies and differentially methylated regions in cord blood (450k or EPIC Illumina arrays) were meta-analyzed across six European cohorts (n = 3725). Differential methylation related to self-reported caffeine intake (mg/day) from coffee, tea and cola was compared with assess whether caffeine is driving effects. Results: One CpG site (cg19370043, PRRX1) was associated with caffeine and another (cg14591243, STAG1) with cola intake. A total of 12–22 differentially methylated regions were detected with limited overlap across caffeinated beverages. Conclusion: We found little evidence to support an intrauterine effect of caffeine on offspring DNA methylation. Statistical power limitations may have impacted our findings.
Bekkhus, Mona; McVarnock, Alicia; Coplan, Robert J.; Ulset, Vidar Sandsaunet & Kraft, Brage (2023). Developmental changes in the structure of shyness and internalizing symptoms from early to middle childhood: A network analysis. Child Development. ISSN 0009-3920. doi: 10.1111/cdev.13906. Full text in Research Archive
Tsotsi, Stella; Goh, Shaun; Coplan, Robert J.; Bølstad, Evalill; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi & Smajlagic, Dinka [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Co-occurrence of internalizing difficulties and aggression in early childhood and risk of mental health problems in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development. ISSN 0165-0254. 47(5), p. 384–396. doi: 10.1177/01650254231187902. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
The goal of this prospective longitudinal study was to explore whether co-occurrent internalizing difficulties and aggression in early childhood convey increased risk for later mental health problems in middle childhood. Participants were mothers from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), who provided assessments of child internalizing difficulties and aggression at ages 3 years ( n = 54,644; 26,750 girls) and 5 years ( n = 38,177; 18,794 girls), as measures of child depressive, anxiety, conduct-related, and oppositional defiant (OD) symptoms at age 8 years. Using latent profile analyses (LPA) of internalizing difficulties and aggression, four profiles were identified: low-symptom/normative; primarily internalizing; primarily aggressive; and co-occurrent. Among the other results, the co-occurrent group exhibited the highest levels of depressive, anxiety, and oppositional defiant symptoms at 8 years. Most children (78%) remained stable in their profile between ages 3 and 5 years. Among the transition patterns that emerged, transitions were observed both from the normative to a risk profile and vice versa. Children who remained stable within the co-occurrent profile or who transitioned from the co-occurrent profile to one of the other two risk profiles also exhibited more depressive, anxiety, and OD symptoms at 8 years of age, when compared with children who transitioned from the co-occurrent to the normative profile. The heterogeneity between early manifestation of internalizing difficulties and aggression, and specific type of later mental health symptoms not only supports a shared etiology between internalizing and externalizing difficulties but also points toward the need for person-centered monitoring in early childhood with further implications for early identification of difficulties and preventive measures.
Stänicke, Line Indrevoll; Kurseth, Pauline Olin & Bekkhus, Mona (2023). ‘Everything turned upside down’: A thematic analysis of adolescents’ experiences of everyday life during COVID-19 restrictions. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. ISSN 1403-4948. doi: 10.1177/14034948231152272. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, people were encouraged to practice social distancing, and schools and leisure venues closed. Aims: We aimed to explore the everyday experiences of Norwegian adolescents during COVID-19 restrictions, when in-person contact with peers was severely limited. Methods: A total of 622 high-school students (16–18 years of age) replied to an online survey containing open-ended questions about the changes they experienced in everyday life during the first three months of the pandemic. Results: Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in four themes: (a) ‘Everyday life turned upside down – everything is on hold’; (b) ‘Alone with my thoughts – new concerns’; (c) ‘A loss of social life – a fear of wasting important time’; and (d) ‘Gratitude – new perspectives in life’. The results are discussed according to mental-health concerns and psychological developmental challenges during adolescence, such as social exploration of roles with peers, autonomy and identity formation during a crisis. Conclusions: The results underline individual variations and positive experiences among adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic, despite social restrictions. Still, the lack of in-person contact with friends is related to an increased experience of loneliness and mental-health concerns for many adolescents.
Svendsrud, Hedvig; Fredriksen, Eivor; Moe, Vibeke; Smith, Lars; Tsotsi, Stella & Ullebø, Anne Karin [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2023). Becoming Dad: Expectant Fathers’ Attachment Style and Prenatal Representations of the Unborn Child. Children. 10(7). doi: 10.3390/children10071187. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
How expectant fathers think and feel about the unborn child (prenatal representations), has shown associations with fathers’ postnatal parenting behaviors, observed father–infant interactional quality and child cognitive development. There is limited knowledge about fathers’ prenatal representations. The present study examined if fathers’ partner-related attachment styles were related to their prenatal representations of the unborn child. In the “Little in Norway Study”, an ongoing prospective, longitudinal population-based study, 396 expectant fathers completed the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale at enrollment (mean gestational week = 23.76, SD = 4.93), and in gestational weeks 27–35 completed three questions assessing prenatal representations. Correlations of attachment style and prenatal representations were reported using logistic regression analyses. We found that an avoidant attachment style by fathers were predicted to have absent or negative representations on all three items (1) “strongest feeling about the unborn child” (Cl = 1.19–2.73), (2) “thoughts about child personality” (Cl = 1.16–1.87), and (3) “experiences of relationship with the child” (Cl = 1.14–1.75). Father anxious attachment style was not significantly associated with absent or negative prenatal representations. Results suggest that expectant fathers with a partner related avoidant attachment style have an increased risk of having absent or negative prenatal representations of the unborn child.
Szekely, Eszter; Laplante, David P; Tiemeier, Henning; Evans, Jonathan; Pearson, Rebecca M. & Bekkhus, Mona [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2023). The DREAM BIG project as a model for harmonizing early measures of parental care and parent-child interactions across epidemiological cohorts. Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2. doi: 10.3389/frcha.2023.1206922. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Parenting is a key contributor to child development. The effects of parenting, however, also depend on child characteristics, including genetic factors. A more complete appraisal of the role of parenting thus requires a comprehensive developmental model which explores questions about parenting behavior, child susceptibility to parenting, and child psychopathology. Moving forward, we need to not only be concerned about sample sizes that limit testing of comprehensive models but also the need to replicate findings across multiple settings and samples. A consortium which harmonises key measures offers the opportunity to examine these questions. The Developmental Research in Environmental Adversity, Mental health, BIological susceptibility and Gender (DREAM BIG) consortium includes six international longitudinal prospective birth cohorts to explore the early life origins of major psychiatric disorders in childhood. Here, we will provide a brief overview of parental care research, methodological limitations, and two exciting recent attempts (i.e., the DREAM BIG consortium and the CATS-project), that address key methodological challenges.
Solberg, Berit Skretting; Kvalvik, Liv Grimstvedt; Instanes, Johanne Telnes; Hartman, Catharina A.; Klungsøyr, Kari & Li, Lin [Show all 20 contributors for this article] (2023). Maternal Fiber Intake During Pregnancy and Development of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms Across Childhood: The Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study. Biological Psychiatry. ISSN 0006-3223. 95(9), p. 839–848. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.12.017. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background Epidemiological studies suggest that maternal diet quality during pregnancy may influence the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring. Here, we investigated associations between maternal intake of dietary fiber and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in early childhood. Methods We used longitudinal data of up to 21,852 mother-father-child trios (49.2% female offspring) from MoBa (the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study). The relationships between maternal fiber intake during pregnancy and offspring ADHD symptoms at ages 3, 5, and 8 years were examined using 1) multivariate regression (overall levels of ADHD symptoms), 2) latent class analysis (subclasses of ADHD symptoms by sex at each age), and 3) latent growth curves (longitudinal change in offspring ADHD symptoms). Covariates were ADHD polygenic scores in child and parents, total energy intake and energy-adjusted sugar intake, parental ages at birth of the child, and sociodemographic factors. Results Higher maternal prenatal fiber intake was associated with lower offspring ADHD symptom scores at all ages (Bage3 = −0.14 [95% CI, −0.18 to −0.10]; Bage5 = −0.14 [95% CI, −0.19 to −0.09]; Bage8 = −0.14 [95% CI, −0.20 to −0.09]). Of the derived low/middle/high subclasses of ADHD symptoms, fiber was associated with lower risk of belonging to the middle subclass for boys and girls and to the high subclass for girls only (middle: odds ratioboys 0.91 [95% CI, 0.86 to 0.97]/odds ratiogirls 0.86 [95% CI, 0.81 to 0.91]; high: odds ratiogirls 0.82 [95% CI, 0.72 to 0.94]). Maternal fiber intake and rate of change in child ADHD symptoms across ages were not associated. Conclusions Low prenatal maternal fiber intake may increase symptom levels of ADHD in offspring during childhood, independently of genetic predisposition to ADHD, unhealthy dietary exposures, and sociodemographic factors.
Oftedal, Aurora; Bekkhus, Mona; Haugen, Guttorm Nils; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi & Kaasen, Anne (2022). The impact of diagnosed fetal anomaly, diagnostic severity and prognostic ambiguity on parental depression and traumatic stress: a prospective longitudinal cohort study. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-6349. 101(11), p. 1291–1299. doi: 10.1111/aogs.14453. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Introduction - The detection of a fetal anomaly during routine obstetric ultrasound is a potentially traumatic experience. The aim of this study is to examine longitudinally the impact of diagnosis of fetal anomaly on symptoms of depression and traumatic stress among mothers and fathers, and to examine how variations in psychological adjustment relate to diagnostic severity and prognostic ambiguity. Material and methods - In this prospective observational study conducted at a tertiary perinatal referral center, 81 mothers and 69 fathers with ultrasound findings of fetal anomaly completed the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and Impact of Events Scale (IES) at four time points in pregnancy (T1–T4) and 6 weeks after birth (T5). We compared this with depression and traumatic stress in a sample of non-affected parents (n = 110 mothers, 98 fathers). Results - Linear mixed effects models indicated that parents who received a diagnosis of fetal anomaly experienced higher levels of depression and traumatic stress over time, compared with non-affected parents. Depression: mean difference mothers = 4.46 ± 0.47, fathers = 2.80 ± 0.42. Traumatic stress: mean difference mothers = 20.04 ± 2.13, fathers = 12.66 ± 1.74. Parents with a more severe diagnosis experienced elevated symptoms compared with parents with a less severe diagnosis. Among mothers, prognostic ambiguity and changes in the anticipated diagnosis after birth were also associated with increased distress, regardless of whether the change was for the better or worse. Conclusions - Diagnosis of fetal anomaly increases risk of depression and traumatic stress in expectant mothers and fathers, both acutely and over time.
Bekkhus, Mona; Lee, Yunsung; Samuelsen, Sven Ove; Tsotsi, Stella & Magnus, Per Minor (2022). Maternal and paternal anxiety during pregnancy: Comparing the effects on behavioral problems in offspring. PLOS ONE. 17(10). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275085. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Prenatal maternal anxiety has been associated with both short and long-term mental health problems in the child. The current study aims to examine the association between maternal and paternal prenatal anxiety and behaviour problems in the child at 1.5 and 5 years, using three different approaches; (1) adjusting for covariates, (2) using fathers’ anxiety during pregnancy as a negative control, and (3) using a sibling-comparison design, controlling for unmeasured family factors. We used data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) is used. MoBa is a cohort consisting of about 114 000 pregnancies (about 34000 siblings) recruited from 1999 to 2008. Self-reported measures on maternal anxiety were obtained twice in pregnancy and 6 months after birth, while paternal anxiety was reported prenatally at 17 th weeks of gestation. Maternal reports on child behaviour problems were obtained at 1.5 and 5 years of age. Results suggests that prenatal exposure to maternal anxiety was associated with behaviour problems at 1.5 years: adjusted beta (β) = 0.13 (CI = 0.12, 0.15), and at 5 years: β = 0.11 (CI = 0.09, 0.14). However, paternal anxiety was also associated with behaviour problems at 1.5 years: β = 0.03 (CI = 0.01–0.03) and at 5 years β = 0.03 (CI = 0.02, 0.03). These associations were attenuated in the sibling comparison analyses: β = - 0.02 (CI = -0.02–0.05) at 1.5 years and β = -0.05 (CI = -0.10, 0.02) at 5 years. In conclusions, the sibling analyses are not consistent with a direct effect of prenatal maternal anxiety on child behaviour problems. It is more likely that genetic or shared family environment explain this association.
Oftedal, Aurora; Bekkhus, Mona; Haugen, Guttorm Nils; Hjemdal, Odin; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi & Kaasen, Anne (2022). Long-Term Impact of Diagnosed Fetal Anomaly on Parental Traumatic Stress, Resilience, and Relationship Satisfaction. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. ISSN 0146-8693. 48(2), p. 181–192. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsac085. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Knowledge regarding the long-term psychological adjustment of parents to children with prenatal diagnosis of congenital malformation is scarce. The aim of this study is to examine traumatic stress trajectories, resilience, and relationship satisfaction among parents to children with prenatal diagnosis of a congenital malformation, and to compare this to a sample of non-affected parents. Methods A prospective longitudinal cohort study was conducted at a tertiary perinatal referral center. Ninety-three mothers and 80 fathers who received a diagnosis of fetal anomaly during obstetric ultrasound examination (study group), and 110 mothers and 98 fathers with normal ultrasound findings (comparison group), reported their traumatic stress at four timepoints during pregnancy (T1-T4), 6 weeks after birth (T5), and 10-12 years after birth (T6). Resilience and relationship satisfaction was reported at 10-12 years after birth. Results Parents to children with a congenital malformation experienced significantly elevated traumatic stress levels over time, compared with parents of children without congenital malformation. The difference between groups was largest acutely after diagnosis and remained significant 10-12 years after the birth of the child. Resilience and relationship satisfaction levels were similar in both groups. Conclusions Despite experiencing high levels of traumatic stress over time, parents to children with a congenital malformation reported resilience and relationship satisfaction at similar levels to non-affected parents. This suggests that despite ongoing long-term distress, parents are still able to maintain positive psychological coping resources.
Clayborne, Zahra M.; Nilsen, Wendy; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Gustavson, Kristin; Bekkhus, Mona & Gilman, Stephen [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2022). Positive maternal mental health attenuates the associations between prenatal stress and children’s internalizing and externalizing symptoms. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. ISSN 1018-8827. doi: 10.1007/s00787-022-01999-4. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; Lee, Yunsung; Brandlistuen, Ragnhild Eek; Samuelsen, Sven Ove & Magnus, Per Minor (2021). Maternal Anxiety and Infants Birthweight and Length of Gestation. A sibling design. BMC Psychiatry. 21. doi: 10.1186/s12888-021-03620-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background The overall aim of this study is to examine the effect of prenatal maternal anxiety on birthweight and gestational age, controlling for shared family confounding using a sibling comparison design. Methods The data on 77,970 mothers and their 91,165 children from the population-based Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study and data on 12,480 pairs of siblings were used in this study. The mothers filled out questionnaires for each unique pregnancy, at 17th and 30th week in pregnancy. Gestational age and birth weight was extracted from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway (MBRN). Associations between prenatal maternal anxiety (measured across the 17th and 30th weeks) and birth outcomes (birthweight and gestational age) were examined using linear regression with adjustment for shared-family confounding in a sibling comparison design. Results In the population level analysis the maternal anxiety score during pregnancy was inversely associated with new-born’s birthweight (Beta = -63.8 95% CI: -92.6, -35.0) and gestational age (Beta = -1.52, 95% CI: -2.15, -0.89) after adjustment for several covariates. The association of the maternal anxiety score with birthweight was no longer significant, but remained for maternal anxiety at 30th week with gestational age (Beta = -1.11, 95% CI: -1.82, -0.4) after further adjusting for the shared-family confounding in the sibling comparison design. Conclusion No association was found for maternal prenatal anxiety with birth weight after multiple covariates and family environment were controlled. However, there was an association between prenatal maternal anxiety at 30th week only with gestational age, suggesting a timing effect for maternal anxiety in third trimester.
Clayborne, Zahra M.; Nilsen, Wendy; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Gustavson, Kristin; Bekkhus, Mona & Gilman, Stephen E. [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2021). Prenatal maternal stress, child internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and the moderating role of parenting: Findings from the Norwegian mother, father, and child cohort study. Psychological Medicine. ISSN 0033-2917. doi: 10.1017/S0033291721004311. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background Few studies have examined how parenting influences the associations between prenatal maternal stress and children's mental health. The objectives of this study were to examine the sex-specific associations between prenatal maternal stress and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and to assess the moderating effects of parenting behaviors on these associations. Methods This study is based on 15 963 mother–child dyads from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). A broad measure of prenatal maternal stress was constructed using 41 self-reported items measured during pregnancy. Three parenting behaviors (positive parenting, inconsistent discipline, and positive involvement) were assessed by maternal report at child age 5 years. Child symptoms of internalizing and externalizing disorders (depression, anxiety, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and oppositional-defiant disorder) were assessed by maternal report at age 8. Analyses were conducted using structural equation modeling techniques. Results Prenatal maternal stress was associated with child internalizing and externalizing symptoms at age 8; associations with externalizing symptoms differed by sex. Associations between prenatal maternal stress and child depression, and conduct disorder and oppositional-defiant disorder in males, became stronger as levels of inconsistent discipline increased. Associations between prenatal maternal stress and symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in females were attenuated as levels of parental involvement increased. Conclusions This study confirms associations between prenatal maternal stress and children's mental health outcomes, and demonstrates that these associations may be modified by parenting behaviors. Parenting may represent an important intervention target for improving mental health outcomes in children exposed to prenatal stress.
Oftedal, Aurora; Bekkhus, Mona; Haugen, Guttorm Nils; Braithwaite, Elizabeth; Bollerslev, Jens & Godang, Kristin [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2021). Changes in maternal cortisol, cortisol binding globulin and cortisone levels following diagnosis of fetal anomaly. Psychoneuroendocrinology. ISSN 0306-4530. 135. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105574. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
The diagnosis of fetal anomaly can be a major stressor to the expectant mother. Current understanding of the relationship between psychological stress and cortisol in pregnancy is limited. This study examined: (1) differences in the ratio of serum cortisol to cortisol binding globulin (SC/CBG) and cortisone levels among women with and without a diagnosis of fetal anomaly, (2) the association between self-reported stress and cortisol from mid to late pregnancy, and (3) the agreement between two different techniques for analyzing cortisol: liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and radioimmunoassay (RIA). Thirty-six pregnant women with a diagnosis of fetal anomaly (study group) and 101 women with healthy pregnancies (comparison group) provided blood samples and completed self-report questionnaires at gestational weeks 18–24 (T1) and 30 (T2). In the comparison group, mean SC/CBG increased from 0.341 nmol/L at T1 to 0.415 at T2 (p < .001), whereas in the study group there was no change (0.342 nmol/L at T1, 0.343 at T2). There was no difference in cortisone levels between the groups at either timepoints. There was a negative association between both depression and traumatic stress at T1, and SC/CBG at T2 (p < .05). There was no association between general distress and SC/CBG. The two methods for analyzing cortisol gave similar results, but with LC-MS/MS showing a lower detection limit than RIA. Increased cortisol with advancing gestational age is expected, thus these findings indicate that under certain conditions of severe stress there may be a suppression of maternal cortisol increase from mid to late gestation. The discrepancy does not seem to be due to differences in the metabolization of cortisol, as indicated by the similar levels of cortisone. Further research is needed in order to understand the potential underlying mechanisms limiting the expression of cortisol in response to certain types of stress in pregnancy.
Bekkhus, Mona; Baldwin, Daniella; Coplan, Robert; Soest, Tilmann von; Skaret, Synne & Ulset, Vidar Sandsaunet [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2021). Examining Launch and Snare Effects in the Longitudinal Associations between Shyness and Socio-Emotional Difficulties in Childhood. Social Development. ISSN 0961-205X. doi: 10.1111/sode.12528. Full text in Research Archive
Ulset, Vidar; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Staton, Sally; Smith, Simon C.; Pattinson, Cassandra & Allen, Alicia [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2021). Environmental Light Exposure, Rest-Activity Rhythms, and Symptoms of Inattention and Hyperactivity: An Observational Study of Australian Preschoolers. Journal of Environmental Psychology. ISSN 0272-4944. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101560. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; Oftedal, Aurora; Braithwaite, Elizabeth; Haugen, Guttorm & Kaasen, Anne (2020). Paternal psychological stress after detection of fetal anomaly during pregnancy. A prospective longitudinal observational study. Frontiers in Psychology. 11:1848, p. 1–13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01848. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background and Aims: Knowledge of carrying a fetus with a prenatal diagnosed anomaly may cause acute psychological stress to the parents. Most studies focus on maternal stress, yet fathers are often present at the ultrasound examinations and birth, and therefore may be affected, similarly, to the expectant mother. However, to date no existing studies have examined how detection of a fetal anomaly emotionally affects the expectant fathers throughout the pregnancy. Our aim was to longitudinally examine general health perceptions, social dysfunction and psychological distress in a subgroup of men where fetal anomaly was detected during pregnancy. Methods and Results: This study is part of the SOFUS study, a prospective, longitudinal, observational study. Participants were recruited when referred for an ultrasound examination conducted by a specialist in fetal medicine at Oslo University Hospital on suspicion of fetal malformation (study group). We examined differences between the men in the study group (N = 32) and a comparison group (N = 83) on the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Impact of Event Scale (IES) and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EDPS) across four time points in pregnancy. Results from repeated measured ANOVA suggests that depression decreased over time among men in both groups (η2 = 0.15, p < 0.001). This effect was stronger in the study group, and differed from the comparison group (η2 = 0.08, p < 0.001). There was also a main effect of time on IES scores, which decreased over time for both men in the study group and in the comparison group (η2 = 0.32, p < 0.001). That is, men in the study group were higher on IES initially, but this effect decreased more in the study group than in the comparison group. Men in the study group and comparison group did not differ on perceived general health (GHQ: p = 0.864). Conclusion: Results suggests that detection of a fetal anomaly has implications for paternal mental health during pregnancy. Expectant fathers scored higher on EPDS and IES than the comparison group in the acute phase after detection of fetal anomaly, thus there is impetus to provide psychological support for fathers, as well as mothers, at this difﬁcult time.
Bekkhus, Mona; Soest, Tilmann von & Fredriksen, Eivor (2020). Psykisk helse hos ungdommer under covid-19. Om ensomhet, venner og sosiale medier. Tidsskrift for Norsk psykologforening (Psykologtidsskriftet). ISSN 0332-6470. 57(7), p. 492–501. Full text in Research Archive
Ulset, Vidar; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Kraft, Brage; Kraft, Pål; Wikenius, Ellen & Kleppestø, Thomas Haarklau [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2019). Are unpopular children more likely to get sick? Longitudinal links between popularity and infectious diseases in early childhood. PLOS ONE. 14(9), p. 1–14. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222222. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Social stress and inflammatory processes are strong regulators of one another. Considerable evidence shows that social threats trigger inflammatory responses that increase infection susceptibility in both humans and animals, while infectious disease triggers inflammation that in turn regulates social behaviours. However, no previous study has examined whether young children’s popularity and their rate of infectious disease are associated. We investigated the longitudinal bidirectional links between children’s popularity status as perceived by peers, and parent reports of a variety of infectious diseases that are common in early childhood (i.e. common cold as well as eye, ear, throat, lung and gastric infections). We used data from the ‘Matter of the First Friendship Study’ (MOFF), a longitudinal prospective multi-informant study, following 579 Norwegian pre-schoolers (292 girls, median age at baseline = six years) with annual assessments over a period of three years. Social network analysis was used to estimate each child’s level of popularity. Cross-lagged autoregressive analyses revealed negative dose–response relations between children’s popularity scores and subsequent infection (b = –0.18, CI = –0.29, –0.06, and b = –0.13, CI = –0.23, –0.03). In conclusion, the results suggest that children who are unpopular in early childhood are at increased risk of contracting infection the following year.
Bekkhus, Mona; Lee, Yunsung; Nordhagen, Rannveig; Magnus, Per; Samuelsen, Sven Ove & Borge, Anne Inger Helmen (2018). Re-examining the link between prenatal maternal anxiety and child emotional difficulties, using a sibling design. International Journal of Epidemiology. ISSN 0300-5771. 47(1), p. 156–165. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyx186. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: Prenatal exposure to maternal anxiety has been associated with child emotional difficulties in a number of epidemiological studies. One key concern, however, is that this link is vulnerable to confounding by pleiotropic genes or environmental family factors. Methods: Data on 82 383 mothers and children from the population-based Mother and Child Cohort Study and data on 21 980 siblings were used in this study. Mothers filled out questionnaires for each unique pregnancy, for infant difficulties at 6 months and for emotional difficulties at 36 months. The link between prenatal maternal anxiety and child difficulties were examined using logistic regression analyses and multiple linear regression analyses for the full study sample and the sibling sample. Results: In the conventional full-cohort analyses, prenatal exposure to maternal anxiety was associated with child difficulties at both 6 months [odds ratio (OR) = 2.1 (1.94–2.27)] and 36 months [OR = 2.72 (2.47–2.99)]. The findings were essentially the same whether we examined difficulties at 6 months or at 36 months. However, these associations were no longer present once we controlled for potential social and genetic confounders in the sibling comparison analyses, either at 6 months [OR = 1.32 (0.91–1.90)] or at 36 months [OR = 1.28 (0.63–2.60)]. Findings from multiple regression analyses with continuous measures were essentially the same. Conclusions: Our finding lends little support for there being an independent prenatal effect on child emotional difficulties; rather, our findings suggest that the link between prenatal maternal anxiety and child difficulties could be confounded by pleiotropic genes or environmental family factors.
Lezhnieva, Natalia; Fredriksen, Per Morten & Bekkhus, Mona (2018). Peer relationships and quality of life in 11-12-year-old children: The Health Oriented Pedagogical Project (HOPP). Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. ISSN 1403-4948. 46(21), p. 74–81. doi: 10.1177/1403494818767788. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Aims: Social interactions play an important role in our everyday life. Studies on children’s quality of life (QoL) show that peer relations are associated with both positive and negative outcomes. Popularity defines the degree to which a child is liked by his or her peers, whereas reciprocal friendship occurs when two children mutually nominate each other as friends. The overall aim was to examine associations between peer relations and children’s QoL. Methods: Baseline data were from the Health Oriented Pedagogical Project (HOPP). From a sample of 2297, 691 children aged 11–12 years participated. QoL was measured using the Norwegian version of the Inventory of Life Quality in Children and Adolescents (ILC). Popularity and friendship variables were based on number of nominations and represent quantitative features of peer relationships. Results: Both popularity and reciprocal friendship had a positive association with children’s QoL. Number of nominations (both for popularity and reciprocal friendship) played a significant role for the above-mentioned associations. Consequently, popularity (β = 0.18) and reciprocal friendship (β = 0.25) were associated with children’s QoL with 95% CIs of 0.12–0.27 and 0.17–0.31, respectively. Conclusions: Findings from the current study contribute to contemporary research focused on children’s QoL. Being able to rank reciprocal friendships, as well as recognizing that having more than one reciprocal friendship increases QoL, is important and could be beneficial for developing programs that promote high QoL, hence preventing possible maladjustments in a long-term perspective.
Ulset, Vidar; Vitaro, Frank; Brendgen, Mara Rosemarie; Bekkhus, Mona & Borge, Anne Inger Helmen (2017). Time spent outdoors during preschool: Links with children's cognitive and behavioral Development. Journal of Environmental Psychology. ISSN 0272-4944. 52, p. 69–80. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.007. Full text in Research Archive
Wikenius, Ellen; Bekkhus, Mona; Martinsen, Pål Gunnar & Myhre, Anne Margrethe (2017). Betydningen av stress tidlig i livet for epigenetisk variasjon : hva vet vi, og hva betyr det? Tidsskrift for Norsk psykologforening (Psykologtidsskriftet). ISSN 0332-6470. 54(7), p. 626–636. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; Brendgen, Mara; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Vitaro, Frank; Dionne, Ginette & Boivin, Michel (2016). Associations between Sibling Relationship Quality and Friendship Quality in Early Adolescence: Looking at the Case of Twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics. ISSN 1832-4274. 19(2), p. 125–135. doi: 10.1017/thg.2016.9. Full text in Research Archive
Küenzlen, Heidi; Bekkhus, Mona; Thorpe, Karen & Borge, Anne Inger Helmen (2016). Potential traumatic events in early childhood and behavioural resilience: a longitudinal case control study. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. ISSN 1740-5629. 13(3), p. 394–406. doi: 10.1080/17405629.2016.1150174. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2014). Kan barn være utsatt for risiko før de er født? Om prenatale virkningsmekanismer. Psykologi i kommunen (PIK). ISSN 1892-3364. 49(2), p. 17–22. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; Staton, Sally; Borge, Anne Inger Helmen & Thorpe, Karen (2014). Do twins differ from single-born children on rates of behavioral difficulty in early childhood? a study of sibling relationship risk factors. Twin Research and Human Genetics. ISSN 1832-4274. 17(4), p. 288–295. doi: 10.1017/thg.2014.39. Full text in Research Archive
Holte, Arne; Barry, Margaret M.; Bekkhus, Mona; Borge, Anne Inger Helmen; Bowes, Lucy & Casas, Ferran [Show all 25 contributors for this article] (2014). Psychology of Child Well-Being. In Ben-Arieh, Asher; Casas, Ferran; Frønes, Ivar & Korbin, Jill E. (Ed.), Handbook of child well-being : theories, methods and policies in global perspective. Springer. ISSN 9789048190621. p. 555–631. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-9063-8_13. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2012). Familierisiko og atferdsvansker : årsak og virkning. Psykologi i kommunen (PIK). ISSN 1892-3364. 47(2), p. 3–8. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; Rutter, Michael; Barker, Edward D & Borge, Anne Inger Helmen (2011). The Role of Pre- and Postnatal Timing of Family Risk Factors on Child Behavior at 36 months. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. ISSN 0091-0627. 39(4), p. 611–621. doi: 10.1007/s10802-010-9477-z. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; Staton, Sally; Borge, Anne Inger Helmen & Thorpe, Karen (2011). Conflict, Closeness and Comfort: The Inter-Twin Relationship as a Risk Factor for Behavioral Difficulties. Twin Research and Human Genetics. ISSN 1832-4274. 14(5), p. 444–451. doi: 10.1375/twin.14.5.444. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; Rutter, Michael; Maughan, Barbara & Borge, Anne Inger Helmen (2011). The effects of group daycare in the context of paid maternal leave and high quality provision. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. ISSN 1740-5629. 8(6), p. 681–696. doi: 10.1080/17405629.2011.602232. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, M; Skjøthaug, Thomas; Nordhagen, Rannveig & Borge, AIH (2010). Intrauterine exposure to caffeine and inattention/overactivity in children. Acta Paediatrica. ISSN 0803-5253. 99(6), p. 925–928. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01744.x. Full text in Research Archive

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Bekkhus, Mona (2008). Mestring. Kommuneforlaget AS. ISBN 9788244612487. 15 p. Full text in Research Archive

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Smajlagic, Dinka; Sunde, Hans Fredrik; Valenza-Troubat, Noemie; Kelly, Kristen; Lyu, Xuanyu & Sapin, Emmanuel [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2026). Estimating assortative mating using haplotype-specific polygenic scores across physiological, psychological, and social traits in the Norwegian MoBa Cohort. doi: https:/s3.amazonaws.com/ClubExpressClubFiles/971921/documents/BGA_2026_Final_Program_1883376854.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIA6MYUE6DNCQ7GISON&Expires=1790839847&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DBGA_2026_Final_Program.pdf&Signature=nfauyWIWzAanx8Du1HeYli1Hi0Q%3D. Full text in Research Archive
Høberg, André; Solberg, Berit Skretting; Haavik, Jan; Smajlagic, Dinka; Havdahl, Alexandra & Bekkhus, Mona [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Genetically Informed Early Identification of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Full text in Research Archive
Haftorn, Kristine Løkås; Braithwaite, Elizabeth C; Page, Christian Magnus; Oftedal, Aurora; Ayorech, Ziada & Kaasen, Anne [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Does DNA methylation at the OXTR gene mediate associations between maternal lifetime history of depression and poor breastfeeding outcomes? Full text in Research Archive
Oftedal, Aurora; Bekkhus, Mona; Haugen, Guttorm Nils & Kaasen, Anne (2022). The development of parental traumatic stress following the detection of fetal anomaly. Full text in Research Archive
Oftedal, Aurora; Tsotsi, Stella; mayerhofer, lilian; Kaasen, Anne; Smajlagic, Dinka & Bekkhus, Mona (2022). Maternal and paternal anxiety and depression in pregnancies using assisted reproductive technology compared to spontaneous conception. Full text in Research Archive
Smajlagic, Dinka; Tsotsi, Stella; Gjerdevik, Miriam; Page, Christian Magnus; Zayats, Tetyana & Austerberry, Chloe [Show all 14 contributors for this article] (2022). Parent-of-origin effects in childhood aggression. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona & Tangvald-Pedersen, Aslaug (2022). 3 Eksperter slik får du robuste barn. [Journal]. VG. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2022). The covid-19 pandemic: The impact on adolescence, parents and gender equality. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2022). Developmental changes in the structure of shyness and internalizing symptoms from early to middle childhood: A Network Analyses, Full text in Research Archive
Tsotsi, Stella; Goh, shaun; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Smajlagic, Dinka; Coplan, Robert & Bølstad, Evalill [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). The co-occurrence of emotional difficulties and aggression in early childhood and the risk of later mental health outcomes: The Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort. Full text in Research Archive
Ulset, Vidar Sandsaunet; barker, ted; Smajlagic, Dinka; Zayats, Tetyana; Kraft, Brage & Bekkhus, Mona (2022). Prenatal dietary inflammation, language problems, and ADHD symptoms: Moderating role of polygenic risk. Poster presentation at the 26th Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Beharvioral Development. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2022). Mental health of adolescents during the covid-19 pandemic-loneliness, friends and social networks. Full text in Research Archive
Oftedal, Aurora; Bekkhus, Mona; Haugen, Guttorm Nils & Kaasen, Anne (2022). The impact of diagnosed fetal anomaly, diagnostic severity, and prognostic ambiguity on parental depression and traumatic stress. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2022). Rampenissen. [Radio]. NRK P1. Full text in Research Archive
Ulset, Vidar Sandsaunet & Bekkhus, Mona (2022). Familie Vennskap, skole og barnehage kan bidra til resiliens og positiv utvikling hos barn og unge. In Lundgren, Charlotte (Eds.), Psykisk oppvekst. Barn og unges psykiske helse fra 0-25 år. Rådet for psykisk helse. ISSN 9788291635460. p. 177–182. Full text in Research Archive
Oftedal, Aurora; Bekkhus, Mona; Haugen, Guttorm Nils & Kaasen, Anne (2021). The relation of traumatic stress to cortisol following the detection of fetal anomaly. Full text in Research Archive
Oftedal, Aurora; Bekkhus, Mona; Haugen, Guttorm Nils & Kaasen, Anne (2021). Utvikling av symptomer på depresjon og posttraumatisk stress etter påvist fosteravvik ved ultralyd. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2021). Mental health of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic - Loneliness, friends and social networks. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2021). Flere med alvorlige spiseforstyrrelser og økning i ensomhet og angst. Er sosiale medier synderen. [Journal]. Aftenbladet. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2021). Betydningen av vennskap og sosial distansering for ungdom. Full text in Research Archive
Oftedal, Aurora; Strand, Martine; Bekkhus, Mona & Kaasen, Anne (2020). Personality as a risk factor for depression following the detection of fetal anomalies. Full text in Research Archive
Thorpe, Karen; Staton, Sally & Bekkhus, Mona (2020). Twins and Other Multiples. In Hupp, Stephen & Jewell, Jeremy D (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Development. John Wiley & Sons. ISSN 9781119171492. doi: 10.1002/9781119171492.wecad219. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Being a multiple birth child is a unique social circumstance that places siblings together from the time of their conception. During their early years, multiple birth siblings spend considerably more of their time together than close‐spaced single‐born children, a situation that presents opportunities for learning and companionship but also greater potential for comparison, competition, and conflict. A key focus for research has been questioning the developmental effects of growing up in these unique circumstances: Does being a multiple birth child present risks for development? Are there developmental strengths associated with being a multiple birth child? What are the variations in the multiple birth children's relationship and how might these affect relationships with others? What are the implications of being a multiple birth child for social experiences beyond the family? Does being a multiple birth child affect social inclusion and quality of peer relationships? This entry addresses these key questions.
oftedahl, Aurora; Strand, Martine; Bekkhus, Mona & Kaasen, Anne (2020). PERSONALITY AS A RISK FACTOR FOR DEPRESSION AFTER THE DETECTION OF FETAL ANOMALIES. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2020). Betaler Isolasjon med ensomhet. [Journal]. Psykologitidsskriftet. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2020). Forståelsen for de unge under koronarestriksjonene har svikta. [Internet]. Forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona & Skaret, Synne (2020). Betydyningen av sosial sjenanse i barndommen. [Internet]. Utdanningsforskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
Skaret, Synne; Bekkhus, Mona & Borge, Anne Inger Helmen (2019). Betydning av sosial sjenanse i barndommen. Psykologi i kommunen (PIK). ISSN 1892-3364. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona; oftedahl, Aurora & Kaasen, Anne (2019). Prenatal Risks, Parental Functioning and Child Development. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2017). Mors angst under svangerskapet skader ikke barnet. [Journal]. Nrk. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2016). Resiliens – hva kjennetegner ungdom som klarer seg bra? In Lingås, Lars Gunnar & Høsøien, Unni (Ed.), Utdanningsvalg : Identitet og danning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205491793. p. 147–162. Full text in Research Archive
Bekkhus, Mona (2013). Kan "å hjelpe" føre til psykopatologi? Psykologisk tidsskrift. ISSN 1501-7508. 17(01), p. 14–19. Full text in Research Archive
Jessen, Reidar Schei; Viana, Karine Porpino; Flatebø, Per; Severinsen, Yvonne; Bekkhus, Mona & Bjørk, Rune Flaaten [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). Foreldrepraksis i Norge: Sluttrapport. Universitetet i Oslo. doi: https:/www.sv.uio.no/psi/forskning/prosjekter/foreldrepraksis-i-norge/publikasjoner/delrapport-2.html. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
På oppdrag fra Barne-, ungdoms- og familiedirektoratet (Bufdir) har vi gjennomført en studie som fremhever tre hovedområder innen foreldreskap: hvordan foreldre forholder seg til sine barns følelser, variasjoner i foreldrepraksis i Norge, og kontekstuelle forhold som preger dette. Hovedformålet med studien er å gi innsikt i hvordan foreldre i Norge navigerer foreldreskapet sitt i et samfunn i endring. Vi benyttet en kombinasjon av kvantitative og kvalitative data for å utforske foreldrestiler og følelsesorientert foreldrepraksis i Norge. Datamaterialet består av en spørreundersøkelse blant 5048 foreldre, syv fokusgrupper med til sammen 24 foreldre, 15 videoobservasjoner av samspillet mellom foreldre og barn og 10 individuelle semistrukturerte intervju med foreldre med lav sosioøkonomisk status. Det første hovedfunnet er at norske foreldre i det store og hele benytter foreldrestiler preget av støtte og varme fremfor kaos og tvang. Selv om det er variasjoner, for eksempel mellom fedre og mødre, går dette funnet på tvers av demografiske forhold som kjønn, kultur og sosioøkonomisk status. Foreldre beskriver hvordan de balanserer validering av følelser og grensesetting i en nordisk kontekts kjennetegnet av en barnesentrert oppdragelse. Det andre hovedfunnet er relatert til betydningen av foreldrestress. Foreldrestress henger sterkt sammen med foreldrestiler som innebærer avvisning, kaos og tvang og til barnets livskvalitet og negative atferd. Disse sammenhengene gjelder uavhengig av foreldrenes kjønn, kulturelle bakgrunn og sosioøkonomiske forhold.Imidlertid indikerer de kvalitative resultatene at kildene til foreldrestress kan variere avhengig av foreldrenes inntekt, utdanning og arbeidssituasjon. Mangel på tid og vansker med å kombinere intensivt foreldreskap og fulltidsarbeid ser ut til å være en utfordring. Foreldre med lav sosioøkonomisk status rapporterer bekymring for at dårlig økonomi hindrer deres barn i å delta på lik linje med andre jevnaldrende som årsaker til foreldrestress. Felles for foreldre på tvers av inntekt, utdanning og arbeidssituasjon er imidlertid en bekymring for ikke å tilby rammer for positiv utvikling for sine barn. På bakgrunn av funnene foreslår vi derfor tiltak som gir foreldre bedre tid med barn på ettermiddag og kveldstid, for eksempel at fritidsaktiviteter flyttes tidligere på dagen når barn ofte er på skolefritidsordning. Det bør også utredes for muligheter som gjør det enklere å ta mer del i barneomsorg i intensive deler av livet uten at dette går ut over arbeidsmuligheter på lang sikt. I tillegg foreslår vi å styrke de økonomiske støtteordninger for barnefamilier.
Landgraff, Maren Lønaas; Haga, Silje Marie; Drozd, Filip & Bekkhus, Mona (2024). Subjective well-being in partners of perinatal women receiving a universal internet-based program: A randomized controlled trial. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive
Nygaard, Egil; Flatebø, Per; Severinsen, Yvonne; Andreassen, Einar & Bekkhus, Mona (2024). Resultater fra forskningsprosjektet Foreldrepraksis i Norge. Delrapport 1. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
I samarbeid med Barne-, ungdoms- og familiedirektoratet (Bufdir) har vi gjennomført en studie som belyser to hovedområder innen foreldreskap: hvilke emosjonssosialiserende foreldrepraksis og foreldrestiler har foreldre i Norge, og hvilke sammenhenger har variasjoner i slik utøvelse av foreldreskap med faktorer hos foreldrene og barnas psykiske helse. Formålet med studien er å gi innsikt i hvordan foreldre i Norge navigerer i sitt foreldreskap. I denne rapporten utforskes foreldrestiler og emosjonssosialiserende foreldrepraksis i Norge ved å benytte to spørreskjemaer, henholdsvis PASCQ og CCNES, i tillegg til andre spørsmål om foreldrene og et av deres barn. Studien inkluderer 5 048 foreldre som enten a) er tvillinger, b) er født av tvillinger, c) er helsøsken født i utlandet, eller d) er foreldrenes (a til c) søsken eller partner. Analysen avdekker at foreldre generelt benytter foreldrestiler som innebærer støtte og varme fremfor kaos og avvisning. Tilsvarende rapporterer de også om at deres emosjonssosialiserende foreldrepraksis generelt er mer støttende enn ikke-støttende. Det observeres kjønnsforskjeller hvor mødre skårer noe høyere på foreldrestiler som inkluderer varme og autonomi og på støttende foreldrepraksis sammenlignet med fedre. Rapporten ser også på sammenhenger mellom sosioøkonomiske forhold og foreldrepraksis. CCNES viser negative sammenhenger mellom støttende foreldrepraksis og høyere inntekt og fulltids arbeid. Dette antyder at foreldre med lavere inntekt eller som ikke er i arbeid oftere rapporterer om støttende foreldrepraksis enn de med høyest inntekt eller fulltidsjobb. PASCQ viser sammenhenger i tilsvarende retning (men mindre) mellom sosioøkonomisk status og foreldrestiler med varme og autonomi. Funnene viser at foreldrestress er betydelig relatert til foreldrestiler som inkluderer mer avvisning, kaos og tvang. Vi finner også at avvisende og kaotiske strategier og bruk av tvang er forbundet med lavere livskvalitet og flere atferdsproblemer hos barn. Derimot er foreldrestiler som inkluderer mye varme assosiert med høyere livskvalitet hos barna. Resultatene understreker kompleksiteten i sammenhengen mellom foreldrestil og barnets utvikling. Det kreves ytterligere forskning for å forstå samspillet mellom foreldrepraksis, foreldrestress og barnas atferd. Funnene understreker behov for tiltak som støtter foreldre i ulike livssituasjoner. Bufdir og andre aktører innen barne- og familiepolitikk bør prioritere økt kunnskap om hvordan foreldreutøvelsen påvirker, og blir påvirket av, barna, samt tiltak for å støtte foreldre i stressende situasjoner. Dette inkluderer tilgang til rådgivning og støttetjenester, samt forebyggende tiltak for å redusere foreldrenes stress. Det er viktig å ta hensyn til kompleksiteten i familielivet og å evaluere effektiviteten av tiltakene for å sikre positiv utvikling hos barna.
Bekkhus, Mona (2012). Pre -and postnatal risk research and behaviour problems in early childhood: A longitudinal cohort study from early preganncy to 36 months. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive

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Published June 29, 2012 9:05 AM - Last modified Mar. 11, 2025 9:24 AM

Mona Bekkhus

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