Motherhood and Quality of Life

Duration: 01.01.2021–31.12.2027

Contact

Espen Røysamb UiO Principal Investigator

About the project

Becoming a parent may bring joy and fulfilment, but adversities and excessive demands may cause reduced wellbeing and both mental and physical health problems. Throughout the childrearing years, mothers have excess risk of work absence, illness, and care-related stressors impacting their future health and economic security. This project adopts an interdisciplinary and exposure-wide developmental approach to provide causal knowledge on the pathways to maternal wellbeing and examine gendered trajectories. We particularly focus on social relations and genetic influences. Good social relations may counteract and modify risks inherent in adversity. Social relations are modifiable factors that may be optimal targets for health promotive and illness preventive efforts. We study the dynamic relations between wellbeing and illbeing over time, the role of relationship quality, violence and abuse, and sources of stability and change in wellbeing.

Objectives

The project aims to delineate associations between wellbeing (life satisfaction, positive affect, relationship satisfaction) and illbeing (anxiety, depression) across time. Further, we study mechanisms involved in associations between adversities and wellbeing to identify resilience promoting factors.

Outcomes

The project capitalizes on cutting-edge methods and leverages unique longitudinal and genetically informative data over 20 years in the Mother, Father and Child Cohort study. The data include a total of N>95,000 mothers, with children and partners, and genotyping, and provide opportunities to model longitudinal developments, gene-environment interplay, control for genetic confounding, and for testing of causality. As a result, we will provide a reliable decision-making basis for practitioners and policy-makers to formulate informed strategies to address women's health and quality of life.

Participants

Espen Røysamb University of Oslo
Ragnhild Bang Nes University of Oslo
Razieh Chegeni University of Oslo
Ludvig Daae Bjørndal University of Oslo
Ziada Ayorech University of Oslo
Eivind Ystrøm University of Oslo
Mona Bekkhus University of Oslo
Nikolai Olavi Czajkowski University of Oslo

Liu, Jinrui; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Vittersø, Joar; Teulings, Irene Johanna Elisabeth & Røysamb, Espen (2026). Positively Negative: Why Negative Affect is Linked to Higher Wellbeing. Journal of Happiness Studies. ISSN 1389-4978. 27(5). doi: 10.1007/s10902-026-01040-4. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Many researchers oppose the hedonic idea that wellbeing can be reduced to the maximization of positive affect (PA) and the minimization of negative affect (NA). However, few studies have investigated alternative optimal levels of affects other than maximized PA and minimized NA. This paper examines ideal levels of PA and NA, and their alignment as an alternative approach to wellbeing. Study 1 investigates people’s ideal levels of affects. In a randomized forced-choice experiment (N = 352, U.S.-based), most participants rejected a life without NA and idealized experiencing 10-13% NA and 66-80% PA across experimental conditions and two selfreported measures. Study 2 (N = 638, international sample) examines whether life satisfaction corresponds more closely to affective alignment than to affective maximization. Using piecewise regression, we found that PA was consistently and positively associated with life satisfaction. Lower NA was associated with higher life satisfaction only among those experiencing more NA than desired. For those already below their ideal NA level, further reduction was no longer related to life satisfaction. Crucially, participants whose experienced and ideal affects were aligned reported the highest life satisfaction, instead of the group with highest hedonic experience. Overall, our findings suggest that individuals feel most satisfied when their experience aligns with their ideal, rather than when maximizing hedonic experience. Furthermore, the alignment is more linked to life satisfaction than to wisdom or personal growth. All in all, maximizing PA and minimizing NA are neither desired nor associated with the highest life satisfaction.
Chegeni, Razieh; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Cheesman, Rosa Catherine Gillespie; Ayorech, Ziada; Ystrøm, Eivind & Røysamb, Espen (2026). Direct and indirect parental genetic effects on offspring susceptibility to internalizing problems across development. Nature Mental Health. 4, p. 754–765. doi: 10.1038/s44220-026-00619-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Internalizing problems, including symptoms of anxiety and depression, are common in childhood and adolescence and are linked to adverse long-term outcomes. Although both child genetic variants and parental genetic influences contribute to these problems, the specific direct (child) and indirect (parental) genetic pathways involved remain unclear. We applied multi-polygenic score models using elastic net regression to identify key genetic predictors of depressive and anxiety symptoms at ages 8 and 14 in 9,314 parent–child trios from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. We included 90 polygenic scores (PGSs) for the trio, along with their respective interaction terms. Predictive accuracy improved with age, with models explaining up to 2.7% of the variance in depression and 1.2% in anxiety. Key predictors included child attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, cognitive skills and well-being spectrum PGSs; maternal PGSs for smoking and cognitive skills; and paternal well-being spectrum PGSs. These findings underscore the value of incorporating diverse parental genetic traits to understand intergenerational risk transmission and developmental changes in child mental health.
Borren, Ingrid; Fruyt, Filip De; Bølstad, Evalill; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Røysamb, Espen & Gustavson, Kristin (2026). Development of Negative Emotionality in Mothers Across 18 Years: Does Relationship Breakup Matter? Journal of Personality. ISSN 0022-3506. p. 1–14. doi: 10.1111/jopy.70064. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Introduction Negative emotionality (NE) tends to decrease with age. However, we lack information about how divorce and other social role experiences predict long‐term development of NE in women after the transition to parenthood. Methods The current study used data from an 18‐year longitudinal study with eight data collection waves, including 823 mothers living with their child's father at baseline. Mixed models and Random Intercept Cross‐Lagged Panel Models were run. Results NE decreased over the 18‐year study period. The decline was steeper among mothers who were no longer in the relationship with the child's father at the end of the study period compared to mothers who stayed in that relationship. Mothers who broke up from a relationship with relatively high problem levels showed the steepest decline. Having four or more children living in the household was associated with less decrease in NE, probably due to initial low NE levels. Not living with a partner predicted temporarily elevated NE levels among mothers. Conclusion Decrease in NE among mothers is not entirely dependent on particular social role experiences or transitions. However, some experiences moderate the magnitude of this decrease, suggesting interrelatedness between decline in NE and social roles among mothers.
Johannessen, Pia Myklebust; Madsen, Christian; Hart, Rannveig Kaldager; Lund, Ingunn Olea; Pettersen, Johanne Hagen & Gustavson, Kristin [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2026). Protective factors for maternal mental health and life satisfaction during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal analysis. BMJ Open. 16(1), p. 1–11. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-110204. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Objective Mothers’ mental health and life satisfaction may have been negatively affected due to challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given the risk of future crises, knowledge of possible mitigating factors in this population is essential. This study aims to examine whether the pandemic affected the level of protective factors such as social support, physical activity and employment situation, and how these factors are associated with mental distress and life satisfaction. Design Longitudinal cohort study. Outcome measures Primary outcomes were mental distress (measured by the eight-item version of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist) and life satisfaction (measured by the Satisfaction With Life Scale). As the first step, we investigated changes in the levels of social support (defined by the number and frequency of social contact), physical activity (average hours of physical activity during a week), employment situation (actively working vs sick leave or unemployed), alcohol consumption (measured by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Consumption) and relationship satisfaction (measured by the five-item version of the Relationship Satisfaction Scale). Methods We analysed data from two waves of the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (n=~18 000 mothers); one pre-pandemic wave and one wave where half of the sample responded after the onset of the pandemic, with pandemic exposure being defined by questionnaire response timing rather than cohort recruitment. To assess changes in protective factors over time and pandemic exposure, we used difference-in-differences analyses and regression discontinuity design. Associations between protective factors with mental distress and life satisfaction, and possible moderation by pandemic exposure, were investigated using multiple regression models with interaction terms adjusted for potential confounders. Results Apart from physical activity, which declined less across time in the pandemic group (B=0.09, 99% CI 0.05 to 0.12), protective factors did not change during the pandemic. Social support, employment situation and relationship satisfaction were associated with mental distress and life satisfaction, whereas physical activity showed a unique relationship with mental distress. Most associations were similar across pandemic exposure groups, except employment situation which appeared to have a stronger protective effect in the pandemic group (β=−0.12, 99% CI −0.24 to −0.00). Conclusions Changes over time in self-reported levels of protective factors were generally consistent among mothers independent of the pandemic. These factors appear to play an equally important role for mental distress and life satisfaction both under ordinary circumstances and during public health crises. Our findings enhance the understanding of how potential protective factors among mothers are associated with mental distress and life satisfaction in the context of a global stressor. Future studies should investigate additional mitigating factors that may be particularly relevant during global crises and explore the causal relationship between protective factors, mental health and life satisfaction.
Tamnes, Christian K.; Bekkhus, Mona; Eilertsen, Maja; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Prydz, Monica Beer & Ystrom, Eivind [Show all 63 contributors for this article] (2025). The nature of the relation between mental well-being and ill-being. Nature Human Behaviour. 9(12), p. 2431–2440. doi: 10.1038/s41562-025-02319-x. Full text in Research Archive
Tveit, Olav Bertin; Røysamb, Espen & Gustavson, Kristin (2025). Consulting Children When Parents Divorce: Longitudinal Associations with Mental Health and Parent–Child Relationship Outcomes. Family Transitions. ISSN 2837-5300. 66(7), p. 455–478. doi: 10.1080/28375300.2025.2527996. Full text in Research Archive
Schaps, Valerie; Hansen, Thomas; Nes, Ragnhild Bang & Wahrendorf, Morten (2025). How are location and type of caring associated with the carer’s mental health? Cross-sectional and longitudinal findings from SHARE. European Journal of Ageing. ISSN 1613-9372. 22. doi: 10.1007/s10433-025-00843-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Research findings on the relationship between caring and health are mixed and call for a more nuanced analysis of the care situation. This study investigates cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between caring and depressive symptoms, considering location and type of care. Data come from the Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), collected in wave 6 (from 2015 to 2016) and wave 8 (from 2019 to 2020). Cross-sectional data were available for 52.186 respondents in 18 countries. Of these, 18.659 were free of elevated depressive symptoms in wave 6 and were used to investigate incident depression in the longitudinal analyses. We distinguished between personal care, practical help, and paperwork, and were able to compare in-home and outside-home personal care. For both men and women, findings indicate that in-home personal care is associated with an increased risk of reporting and developing depressive symptoms (after controlling for age, country affiliation, education, wealth, employment situation, and functional limitations). Cross-sectional, but not longitudinal, associations were also found for outside-home care in terms of personal care or paperwork, but not for practical help. Additionally, women and disadvantaged population groups were more likely to provide in-home care, but less likely to provide outside care (regardless of the type). Overall, the results highlight that different locations and types of care are associated differently with mental health. Findings also underscore the need for interventions specifically tailored to support disadvantaged populations who provide in-home care, addressing the unique challenges they face.
Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Røysamb, Espen; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Soest, Tilmann Martin von & Ebrahimi, Omid V. (2025). Financial factors and depression and anxiety: A symptom-specific approach in the general population. SSM - Mental Health (SSM-MH). 8. doi: 10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100508. Full text in Research Archive
Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Lan, Xiaoyu; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Ystrøm, Eivind & Røysamb, Espen (2024). Wellbeing and illbeing in women exposed to physical and sexual violence during peripregnancy: a population-based longitudinal study. European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 15(1). doi: 10.1080/20008066.2024.2398961. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: Physical and sexual violence against pregnant women have been associated with detrimental mental health outcomes for victims. Few studies have examined both positive (wellbeing) and negative (illbeing) mental health indicators in the same sample. Additionally, the literature assessing mental health based on different forms of violence is limited. Objective: To compare both wellbeing (life satisfaction) and illbeing (anxiety and depression) trajectories between non-victimized and victims of physical, sexual and both forms of violence that occurred during or shortly before pregnancy. Further, we analyse whether social support moderates these trajectories. Method: This longitudinal study is based on the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort, including the period from early pregnancy to toddlerhood (3 years). We compared wellbeing and illbeing trajectories of non-victims (n = 73,081), victims of physical abuse (n = 1076), sexual abuse (n = 683), and both forms of abuse (n = 107) using Growth Curve Modelling. Finally, social support was included as a moderator of wellbeing and illbeing trajectories. Results: Results indicated that victims scored systematically lower in wellbeing and higher in illbeing. Exposure to violence did not significantly change the wellbeing trajectory, pointing to similar developments in wellbeing among victims and non-victims for the considered period. On the other hand, different trajectories in illbeing occurred between victims and non-victims, as well as between victimized groups. Victims experienced greater change in illbeing scores, with a steeper decrease in illbeing compared to non-victims. Both victims and non-victims returned to respective baseline scores 3 years after birth. All women benefited from social support, but victims of physical abuse were particularly protected by social support. Conclusions: There is an alarming persistence of mental health problems in women exposed to violence during peripregnancy. Different forms of violence differentially impact women’s mental health. Social support is beneficial among all pregnant women.
Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Ayorech, Ziada; Cheesman, Rosa; Ahmadzadeh, Yasmin I. & Baldwin, Jessie R. [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2024). Disentangling direct and indirect genetic effects from partners and offspring on maternal depression using trio-GCTA. Nature Mental Health. 2(4), p. 417–425. doi: 10.1038/s44220-024-00207-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Maternal depressive symptoms are highly prevalent and can negatively impact affected individuals and family members. Understanding etiological influences on maternal depression, such as genetic liability, is key to inform treatment and prevention efforts. Here we quantified direct and indirect genetic effects (that is, when genetic variants in other individuals influence risk of maternal depression through the environment) from partners and offspring on maternal depressive symptoms at multiple time points using genome-wide complex trait analysis with parent–offspring trios. We used data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child cohort study, including up to 21,000 genotyped parent–offspring trios. Models with indirect genetic effects had best fit at three out of five time points (3, 5 and 8 years after birth). The variance in maternal depressive symptoms explained by direct genetic effects ranged from 5% to 14%, whereas indirect genetic effects explained 0–14% of variance across time points. Heritable traits in family members contribute to maternal depressive symptoms through the environment at several time points after birth.
Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Yu, Baeksan; Ayorech, Ziada; Lan, Xiaoyu & Ystrøm, Eivind [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Stability and change in maternal wellbeing and illbeing from pregnancy to three years postpartum. Quality of Life Research. ISSN 0962-9343. 33, p. 2797–2808. doi: 10.1007/s11136-024-03730-z. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Purpose Motherhood affects women’s mental health, encompassing aspects of both wellbeing and illbeing. This study investigated stability and change in wellbeing (i.e., relationship satisfaction and positive affect) and illbeing (i.e., depressive and anxiety symptoms) from pregnancy to three years postpartum. We further investigated the mutual and dynamic relations between these constructs over time and the role of genetic propensities in their time-invariant stability. Data and methods This four-wave longitudinal study included 83,124 women from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) linked to the Medical Birth Registry of Norway. Data were collected during pregnancy (30 weeks) and at 6, 18 and 36 months postpartum. Wellbeing and illbeing were based on the Relationship Satisfaction Scale, the Differential Emotions Scale and Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-8. Genetics were measured by the wellbeing spectrum polygenic index. Analyses were based on random intercept cross-lagged panel models using R. Results All four outcomes showed high stability and were mutually interconnected over time, with abundant cross-lagged predictions. The period of greatest instability was from pregnancy to 6 months postpartum, followed by increasing stability. Prenatal relationship satisfaction played a crucial role in maternal mental health postpartum. Women’s genetic propensity to wellbeing contributed to time-invariant stability of all four constructs. Conclusion Understanding the mutual relationship between different aspects of wellbeing and illbeing allows for identifying potential targets for health promotion interventions. Time-invariant stability was partially explained by genetics. Maternal wellbeing and illbeing develop in an interdependent way from pregnancy to 36 months postpartum.
Methi, Fredrik; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Skirbekk, Vegard Fykse & Hansen, Thomas (2024). The double-edged sword of becoming a caregiver: dynamic impact on four dimensions of well-being in Norway. BMC Psychology. 12(1), p. 1–14. doi: 10.1186/s40359-024-01623-x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background Becoming a caregiver can be a transformative journey with profound, multifaceted implications for well-being. However, existing research predominantly emphasizes the negative aspects of caregiving, paying less attention to the positive sides. This study aims to explore the impact of transitioning into a caregiving role on various well-being indicators, such as negative hedonic, positive hedonic, eudaimonic, and social well-being. Methods We use Norwegian panel data (2019–2021) and employ a combination of nearest-neighbour matching and a difference-in-differences approach to analyse well-being trajectories among new caregivers (n = 304) and non-caregivers (n = 7822). We assess ten items capturing the dimensions of negative hedonic (anxiousness, sadness, and worriedness), positive hedonic (happiness and life satisfaction), eudaimonic (contributing to others’ happiness, engagement, and meaning), and social (strong social relations and loneliness) well-being. Results Our results show a general increase in negative hedonic well-being and a decline in positive hedonic well-being for new caregivers. These impacts are larger for caregivers providing daily care, compared to those providing weekly and monthly care, and for those providing care inside rather than outside their own household. We observe only minor differences regarding gender and age. Interestingly, we also notice neutral or beneficial changes for eudaimonic aspects of well-being; of note, caregivers generally experience an increased sense of contributing to others’ happiness. Conclusion Our study reveals that adopting a caregiving role often leads to significant psychosocial challenges, especially in intensive caregiving situations. However, it also uncovers potential positive influences on eudaimonic aspects of well-being. Future research should explore underlying explanatory mechanisms, to inform strategies that enhance caregivers’ well-being.
Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Ebrahimi, Omid V.; Røysamb, Espen; Karstoft, Karen-Inge; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi & Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Stressful life events exhibit complex patterns of associations with depressive symptoms in two population-based samples using network analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders. ISSN 0165-0327. 349, p. 569–576. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.054. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background Stressful life events (SLEs) constitute key risk factors for depression. However, previous studies examining associations between SLEs and depression have been limited by focusing on single events, combining events into broad categories, and/or ignoring interrelationships between events in statistical analyses. Network analysis comprises a set of statistical methods well-suited for assessing relationships between multiple variables and can help surpass several limitations of previous studies. Methods We applied network analysis using mixed graphical models combining two large-scale population-based samples and >34,600 randomly sampled adults to investigate the associations between SLEs and current depressive symptoms in the general population. Results Numerous SLEs were uniquely associated with specific symptoms. Strong pairwise links were observed between SLEs during the past year and individual symptoms, e.g., between having experienced illness or injury and sleeping problems, having been degraded or humiliated and feeling blue, and between financial problems and hopelessness and being worried and anxious. Several SLEs, such as financial problems, sexual abuse, and having been degraded or humiliated, were associated with symptoms across more than one timepoint. More recent SLEs were generally more strongly associated with depressive symptoms. Several life events were strongly interrelated, such as multiple forms of abuse, and financial problems, unemployment, divorce, and serious illness or injury. Limitations Limitations include a retrospective SLE measure, cross-sectional data, a brief self-report measure of depressive symptoms, and possible attrition bias in the sample. Conclusions Our findings may have implications for public health efforts seeking to improve population mental health.
Lan, Xiaoyu (2024). Like mother, like child? Examining the direct and indirect associations of family functioning and materialism with child psychopathology using mother-child dyads. Current Psychology. ISSN 1046-1310. 43, p. 17477–17486. doi: 10.1007/s12144-024-05710-5. Full text in Research Archive
Grønlie, Anette Arnesen; Backer-Grøndahl, Agathe; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Gomez, Maria Begoña & Tømmerås, Truls (2024). Implementation of a parent training intervention (SPARCK) to prevent childhood mental health problems: study protocol for a pragmatic implementation trial in Norwegian municipalities. Trials. 25(1), p. 1–10. doi: 10.1186/s13063-024-08704-7. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Abstract Background Effective evidence-based interventions (EBI) are necessary to prevent and avoid negative life trajectories for children with mental health problems. Even though many EBIs prove effective when tested, few are successfully implemented and used in real-world clinical practice. As a result, many children and families do not receive the best care in due time or at all. To reduce this research-practice gap, a combined RCT and implementation study of Supportive Parents—Coping Kids (SPARCK), a parent training intervention to prevent childhood mental health problems, will be performed. This study protocol concerns the implementation part of the larger effectiveness-implementation project. Methods The study is a correlational multi-site implementation study of SPARCK performed alongside a two-armed RCT, in 24 Norwegian municipalities. A quantitative three-wave longitudinal web-based data collection will be conducted among SPARCK practitioners and leaders in relevant services. We will investigate the relations between theory-driven and empirical implementation determinants and implementation outcomes, measured by fidelity, acceptability, appropriateness, and feasibility. In addition, we will examine how these implementation determinants and outcomes are associated with the clinical outcomes of SPARCK. Discussion The current study will investigate implementation determinants and their relation to indicators of implementation success, while simultaneously investigating effectiveness of an intervention optimized to the needs of both the target group and relevant stakeholders. Together, this may improve clinical effect, contextual fit, implementation success, and reduce the time lag between research findings and application in real-world settings. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05800522. Registered on 2023.03.23.
Oftedal, Aurora; Tsotsi, Stella; Kaasen, Anne; Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Røysamb, Espen & Smajlagic, Dinka [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Anxiety and depression in expectant parents: ART versus spontaneous conception. Human Reproduction. ISSN 0268-1161. 38(9), p. 1755–1760. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dead133. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
STUDY QUESTION: Do expectant parents experience increased anxiety and depression during pregnancies conceived through ART compared to spontaneous conception? SUMMARY ANSWER: Among all expectant parents in the sample, those who conceived through ART reported overall lower levels of anxiety and depression in pregnancy compared to expectant parents who conceived spontaneously, while in the subsample of parents who conceived both through ART and spontaneous conception, expectant mothers experienced increased anxiety and de- pression in early pregnancy following ART compared to spontaneous conception. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Previous research on expectant parents’ psychosocial adjustment in response to ART has found mixed results, with some studies suggesting ART is associated with increased anxiety and depression, and other studies suggesting im- proved mental health or no relationship. Mixed findings may relate to the use of cross-sectional designs that do not account for con- founding differences between groups, or variability in the timing of assessment. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: This prospective cohort study used data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), which includes 2960 pregnant women who underwent ART and 108 183 women who conceived spontaneously. Of these, a subsample of expectant parents had two consecutive pregnancies with one pregnancy resulting from ART and one conceived spontaneously (n 1⁄4 286 women, n 1⁄4 211 partners). Women self-reported their composite symptoms of anxiety and depression at two timepoints during each pregnancy (gestational weeks 17 and 30). Their partners self-reported composite symptoms of anxiety and depression at 17 weeks gestation during each pregnancy. Couples reported their relationship satisfaction at 17 weeks gestation. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANGE: Using a conventional full-cohort analysis we found that ART was associated with less total anxiety and depression and greater relationship satisfaction, compared to spontaneous conception among both women and men. However, in the subsample of parents who experienced both ART and spontaneous pregnancies, ART was associated with in- creased levels of maternal anxiety and depression at gestational age 17weeks (M1⁄41.19), compared to spontaneous pregnancies (M 1⁄4 1.15), 95% CI of the mean difference 0.006, 0.074. At 30 weeks gestation, anxiety and depression were similar across both types of pregnancies. Expectant fathers reported similar levels of anxiety and depression at 17weeks gestation during both pregnancies. Among women relationship satisfaction was higher following ART conception than spontaneous conception. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: There is potential for selection effects in the sample, as women who have conceived through both ART and spontaneous conception in their first two pregnancies are rare. In addition, several factors that may be important predic- tors of mental health in this context, such as previous miscarriages and long-term infertility, were not assessed in the current study. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Our findings indicate that previous discrepancies in the literature may be related to in- herent differences between the groups of parents receiving reproductive treatment and those who do not. This study addresses that limitation by prospectively comparing different types of pregnancies within the same expectant parents. Earlier inconsistencies may also relate to variations in gestational age when anxiety and depression were assessed. By examining symptoms at two timepoints in each pregnancy, we were able to examine the relation between gestational age and symptoms of anxiety and depression.
Lan, Xiaoyu (2023). Plight or light? Elucidating the main and interacting effects of parenting styles and BIS/BAS profiles on left-behind youth’s self-esteem. Current Psychology. ISSN 1046-1310. 43, p. 858–875. doi: 10.1007/s12144-023-04334-5. Full text in Research Archive
Alexandersen, Nina; Zachrisson, Henrik Daae; Røysamb, Espen; Wilhelmsen, Tiril; Wang, Mari Vaage & Brandlistuen, Ragnhild Eek (2023). Preschool structural quality and student–teacher closeness are related to children's adjustment: sibling-informed design. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. ISSN 0885-2006. 66, p. 48–60. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.08.009. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
This study aims at examining whether children's adjustment, social play behavior and Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) program-liking in universal ECEC are associated with the quality of student–teacher relationships and structural quality features of the classrooms they attend. The sample includes 7,436 5-year-old children (50% girls) and 195 sibling pairs (48% girls) participating in the nationwide Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Three sets of findings are presented. First, student–teacher closeness is associated with children's adjustment (β = .47; SE = .01), ECEC liking (β = .14; SE = .02) and social play behavior (β = .06; SE = .02) in the between-child analysis. Second, associations of student–teacher closeness with children's adjustment and ECEC liking are evident even after accounting for all confounders shared by siblings in the within-family analysis (sibling fixed effects). Third, structural quality indicators are related to the children's outcomes primarily via quality of student–teacher relationships.
Ayorech, Ziada; Cheesman, Rosa; Eilertsen, Espen M.; Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Røysamb, Espen & McAdams, Tom A. [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Maternal depression and the polygenic p factor: A family perspective on direct and indirect effects. Journal of Affective Disorders. ISSN 0165-0327. 332, p. 159–167. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.03.043. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Within-family studies typically assess indirect genetic effects of parents on children, however social support theory points to a critical role of partners and children on women's depression. To address this research gap and account for the high heterogeneity of depression, we calculated a general psychiatric factor using eleven major psychiatric polygenic scores (polygenic p), in up to 25,000 parent-offspring trios from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Multilevel modeling of trio polygenic p was used to distinguish direct and indirect genetic effects on mothers depression during pregnancy (gestational age 17 and 30 weeks), infancy (6 months, 18 months) and early childhood (3 years, 5 years, and 8 years). We found mothers polygenic p predicts their depression symptoms (b = 0.092; 95 % CI [0.087,0.098]), outperforming prediction using a single major depressive disorder polygenic score (b = 0.070, 95 % CI [0.066,0.075]). Jointly modeling trio polygenic p revealed indirect genetic effects of fathers (b = 0.022, 95 % CI [0.014,0.030]) and children (b = 0.021, 95 % CI [0.010,0.037]) on mothers' depression. Our results support the generalizability of polygenic effects across mental health and highlight the role of close family members on women's depression.
Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Ebrahimi, Omid Vakili; Lan, Xiaoyu; Nes, Ragnhild Bang & Røysamb, Espen (2023). Mental Health and Environmental Factors in Adults: A Population-Based Network Analysis. American Psychologist. ISSN 0003-066X. doi: 10.1037/amp0001208. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen; Moffitt, Terrie; Caspi, Avshalom; Ystrøm, Eivind & Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2023). Worldwide Well-Being: Simulated Twins Reveal Genetic and (Hidden) Environmental Influences. Perspectives on Psychological Science. ISSN 1745-6916. 18(6), p. 1562–1574. doi: 10.1177/17456916231178716. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
What are the major sources of worldwide variability in subjective well-being (SWB)? Twin and family studies of SWB have found substantial heritability and strong effects from unique environments but virtually no effects from shared environments. However, extant findings are not necessarily valid at the global level. Prior studies have examined within-countries variability but did not take into account mean differences across nations. In this article, we aim to estimate the effects of genetic factors, individual environmental exposures, and shared environments for the global population. We combine a set of knowns from national well-being studies (means and standard deviations) and behavioral-genetic studies (heritability) to model a scenario of twin studies across 157 countries. For each country, we simulate data for a set of twin pairs and pool the data into a global sample. We find a worldwide heritability of 31% to 32% for SWB. Individual environmental factors explain 46% to 52% of the variance (including measurement error), and shared environments account for 16% to 23% of the global variance in SWB. Worldwide, well-being is somewhat less heritable than within nations. In contrast to previous within-countries studies, we find a notable effect of shared environments. This effect is not limited to within families but operates at a national level.
Hermansen, Tone Kristine; Syrstad, Kari Enger; Røysamb, Espen & Melinder, Annika Maria Désirée (2022). Child internalizing and externalizing behaviors: Interplay between maternal depressive symptoms and child inhibitory control. JCPP Advances. 2(4). doi: 10.1002/jcv2.12107. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Maternal depression is a risk factor for child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Aiming to investigate the moderating role of child inhibitory control on this relationship, we invited a sub-sample of dyads from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort study (MoBa) for a lab-based assessment (N = 92, Mage = 68 months, Range = 59–80, 50% girls). Maternal depression was assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), while child behaviors were measured using the Child Behavior Check List, and inhibitory control using a child friendly version of the Flanker-task. As expected, higher levels of concurrent maternal depressive symptoms predicted higher levels of child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Importantly, and in line with our predictions, child inhibitory control moderated the association. Lower levels of inhibitory control predicted a stronger association between concurrent maternal depressive symptoms and child behavioral outcomes. The results support prior research suggesting that concurrent maternal depression poses a risk for child development, and highlight that children with lower levels of inhibitory control are more vulnerable to negative environmental influences. These findings contribute to our understanding of the complexity of parental mental health issues on child development and suggest avenues for personalized treatment programs for families and children at risk.
Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Yu, Baeksan; Hansen, Thomas; Vedaa, Øystein; Røysamb, Espen & Nilsen, Thomas Sevenius (2022). Flattening the quality of life curve? A prospective person-centred study from Norway amid COVID-19. Quality of Life Research. ISSN 0962-9343. 31, p. 2295–2305. doi: 10.1007/s11136-022-03113-2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Purpose We examined multidimensional, heterogeneous reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic and associated measures to provide further insights into the developmental processes of risk and adaptation. Method We used three-wave questionnaire data from 8156 individuals participating in the Norwegian County Public Health Survey assessed 1–5 months before and three (June 2020) and nine (December 2020) months after the outbreak. Latent profile and latent transition analyses were used to identify latent quality of life (QoL) classes and multiform changes, their probabilities, and predictors. Results We identified five distinct QoL classes of varying proportions, namely Flourishing (i.e. 24–40%), Content (31–46%), Content-Symptomatic (8–10%), Languishing (14–20%), and Troubled (2–5%). Despite higher levels of negative affect and lower levels of life satisfaction and positive emotions, most individuals remained in their pre-pandemic QoL profiles. Yet, changes occurred for a meaningful proportion, with transition to a less favourable class more common than to a favourable. Between time 1 and 3, the flourishing and troubled groups decreased by 40% and 60%, while the content and languishing groups increased by 48% and 43%, respectively. Favourable pre-pandemic relational (marital status, support, interpersonal trust, and belonging), health, and economy-related status predicted significantly lower odds of belonging to the high-risk groups both pre-pandemic and during the pandemic. Conclusions Overall, this study shows lower levels of QoL amid the COVID-19 pandemic, but substantial stability in the QoL distribution, and an overall levelling of the QoL distribution. Our findings also underscore the importance of financial, health-related, and social capital to QoL.
Helland, Maren Sand; Lyngstad, Torkild Hovde; Holt, Tonje; Larsen, Linda Paarup Neigaard & Røysamb, Espen (2021). Effects of Covid-19 lockdown on parental functioning in vulnerable families. Journal of Marriage and Family. ISSN 0022-2445. 83(5), p. 1515–1526. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12789. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Objective The aim of this study was to increase the knowledge about how the initial Covid-19 lockdown influenced parental functioning in vulnerable families. Background The Covid-19 pandemic has caused major changes to family life. Using a natural experiment design can potentially adjudicate on former inconclusive findings about the effects of lockdown on parental functioning in vulnerable families. Method Responses from parents in a sample of potentially vulnerable families in Norway were divided into a lockdown group if participating at baseline and during the initial Covid-19 lockdown (n = 820 responses) or into a control group if participating at baseline and before lockdown (n = 1368 responses). Mixed model regression analyses were used to mimic a wait-list design investigating direct lockdown effects on mental health, parenting stress, and three aspects of interparental conflicts, as well as moderation effects. Results The lockdown group showed significantly higher levels of parenting stress compared with the control group, but no aversive lockdown effect on mental health or destructive conflicts were found. In fact, decreased levels of verbal aggression and child involvement in conflict were found during lockdown among parents living apart. Pre-existing financial problems and conflict levels, age of youngest child, and parent gender did not moderate the lockdown effects. Conclusion The initial lockdown did not seem to adversely affect parental functioning, beyond increased parenting stress. Caution should be taken when generalizing the findings as child effects and long-term lockdown effects were not investigated.

View all works in NVA

Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). Hverdagsglede som helsekapital. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Røysamb, Espen; Hansen, Thomas & Nilsen, Thomas Sevenius (2026). Norge på 6. plass i Verdens lykkerapport 2026 - FHI. doi: https:/www.fhi.no/nyheter/2026/norge-pa-6.-plass-i-verdens-lykkerapport-2026. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
FN lanserer World Happiness Report 19. mars. For niende år på rad er befolkningen i Finland den mest fornøyde i verden, foran Danmark og Island. Norge ligger i år på en 6. plass etter de øvrige nordiske landene – og Costa Rica. Afghanistan ligger nederst på listen.
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). World Happiness Report 2026: Status Norge. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Røysamb, Espen; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi & Prydz, Monica Beer (2026). Digital Wellbeing Promotion in the General Population: Effects, Mechanisms, and Long-Term Outcomes of the Five Ways to Wellbeing for All Intervention. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Introduction The global rise in mental health problems and compromised wellbeing highlights the need for scalable and cost-effective wellbeing interventions. The Five Ways to Wellbeing for All (5waysA) is a digital adaptation of the UK’s Five Ways to Wellbeing framework, promoting wellbeing through five activity domains: connect, be active, take notice, keep learning, and give. Delivered via two webinars and SMS reminders over ten weeks, the 5waysA program aims to enhance wellbeing and reduce psychological distress in the general population. Methods A large-scale randomized controlled trial (N = 969) and subsequent secondary analyses were conducted in Norway. Self-reported life satisfaction, flourishing, positive emotions, anxiety, and depression were assessed pre-, mid-, and post-intervention. Analyses included multilevel modeling, mediation analysis, and network intervention analysis (NIA). A 12-month follow-up study with synthetic control comparison examined long-term effects. Findings Compared to waiting-list controls, participants in the intervention group reported significantly greater improvements in wellbeing (life satisfaction, flourishing, positive emotions) and reductions in anxiety and depressive symptoms (Cohen’s d = 0.20–0.49), with larger effects among those with most pre-intervention symptoms. Mediation analyses indicated that engagement in the Five Ways activities partially explained these effects, with a clear dose–response relationship between activity engagement and wellbeing outcomes. NIA revealed that increased positive emotions represented the main direct pathway, linking the intervention to improved wellbeing. Long-term follow-up demonstrated sustained gains in life satisfaction at 12 months (d = 0.28), exceeding simulated population-level controls (d = 0.17). Conclusions The 5waysA program effectively promotes wellbeing and reduces distress through accessible, evidence-based activities. Its digital, low-cost format, and durable effects make it a promising large-scale strategy for population-level mental health promotion and positive psychological functioning.
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). #60 Blir vi lykkeligere av penger? - Sunn Økonomi | Acast. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Listen to #60 Blir vi lykkeligere av penger? from Sunn Økonomi. Gjør penger oss lykkelige? I denne episoden har jeg med psykolog og lykkesforsker Gunvor Marie Dyrdal, som har doktorgrad i positiv psykologi - og vi dykker ned i forskningen på penger og lykke. Vi gir deg 8 konkrete hverdagsvaner somforskning viser faktisk gjør oss lykkeligere.
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). Fem grep for et litt lykkeligere 2026 - Av-og-til. [Internet]. Av og til. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Oppdag de fem «lykke-knepene» fra lykkeforsker Ragnhild Bang Nes. Bli lykkeligere i hverdagen med konkrete øvelser og forskningsbaserte grep.
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). – God livskvalitet er en motor. [Internet]. Forskerforum. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Lykkeforsker ved Folkehelseinstituttet Ragnhild Bang Nes mener et godt liv bør være en menneskerett.
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). Happy You. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). Happy Nordics. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2026). – Når gledene oppstår, kan vi like gjerne kjenne på dei - NRK. [Journal]. NRK. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Dersom du ikkje følger med, er det lett å gå glipp av kvardagsgleder. Bjarte har trena på å legge merke til dei.
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2025). Ny forskning: Penger og økt forbruk er ikke veien til lykke. [Internet]. TV2. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2025). I tried the Nordic art of dugnadsånd for a week - I'm happier and less anxious. [Internet]. The I Paper. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2025). Smakebit på sommervarmen i vente: – Vi blir gladere. [Internet]. TV2. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2025). Går tiden for fort? Slik bremser du den. [Journal]. VG. Full text in Research Archive
Ayorech, Ziada (2025). GP Patient Relationship in Depression. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Mayerhofer, Lilian; Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Teulings, Irene Johanna Elisabeth; Vittersø, Joar & Røysamb, Espen (2024). Homo Felix: From Genes to Values. Full text in Research Archive
Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Ebrahimi, Omid V. & Røysamb, Espen (2024). Multiple social factors are associated with wellbeing measured cross-sectionally and six years later when accounting for shared genetic and environmental confounding. Full text in Research Archive
Ayorech, Ziada (2024). Family based methods for the 2023 Boulder Statistical Genetics Workshop. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Fem grep for et litt lykkeligere 2025. [Internet]. https://avogtil.no/historie/fem-grep-for-lykke/. Full text in Research Archive
Ayorech, Ziada (2024). Family based approaches to life course depression. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Ble lykkeligere av å trene på hverdagsglede. [Journal]. Dagens medisin. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Norge minst lykkelig i Norden nok en gang. [Internet]. Forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Quality of life towards 2030: Science, practice and policy in the Norwegian context. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang & Røysamb, Espen (2024). Så menneskene kan danse sine liv. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Hvordan kan vi legge tilrette for god livskvalitet for alle? Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen (2024). Livskvalitet og hverdagsglede. [Radio]. NRK nyhetsmorgen. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Nøkkelen til god livskvalitet på vei inn i mørketida. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2024). Livskvalitetsagenter i SFO. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen (2024). Happiness. Nature and Nurture. Full text in Research Archive
Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Yu, Baeksan; Ayorech, Ziada; Lan, Xiaoyu & Ystrøm, Eivind [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Journey of Love: Exploring Stability and Change in Relationship Satisfaction, Wellbeing, and Illbeing from Pregnancy to Three Years Postpartum. Full text in Research Archive
Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Yu, Baeksan; Ayorech, Ziada; Lan, Xiaoyu & Ystrøm, Eivind [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Journey of Love: Exploring Stability and Change in Relationship Satisfaction, Wellbeing, and Illbeing from Pregnancy to Three Years Postpartum. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen (2023). Sakerna som gör oss lyckligare än andra. [Journal]. Dagens Nyheter. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen (2023). Norske forskere vet nå hvor livsgleden vår kommer fra. [Internet]. forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen; Ystrøm, Eivind & Nes, Ragnhild Bang (2023). Wellbeing worldwide: Identifying the (missing) shared environment. Full text in Research Archive
Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Yu, Baeksan; Ayorech, Ziada; Lan, Xiaoyu & Ystrøm, Eivind [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). From Romance to Motherhood: Transitions in Relationship Satisfaction, Wellbeing and Illbeing from Pregnancy to Toddlerhood. Full text in Research Archive
Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Ayorech, Ziada; Bartels, Meike; Ystrøm, Eivind & Røysamb, Espen (2023). Early manifestations of genetic profile in mental health phenotypes and the role of maternal wellbeing: findings from MoBa and NTR. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Røysamb, Espen; Hansen, Thomas; Ystrøm, Eivind; Yu, Baeksan & Mayerhofer, Lilian (2023). Maternal wellbeing and illbeing from pregnancy to school age: A longitudinal study of co-development and interrelations. Full text in Research Archive
Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Hansen, Thomas; Eilertsen, Maja; Nilsen, Thomas Sevenius & Røysamb, Espen (2023). Towards a Wellbeing Economy in Norway: National Efforts to Monitor, Explain and Promote Wellbeing. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen (2023). Vil styrke folkehelsen og løse depresjonsgåten. [Internet]. Norges Forskningsråd - Suksesshistorier. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen (2022). Kan vi bli lykkelige? Full text in Research Archive
Mayerhofer, Lilian Juliane Kozlowski; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Lan, Xiaoyu; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Ystrøm, Eivind & Røysamb, Espen (2022). Social support and wellbeing across the pre- and postnatal period in women victim of abuse: Findings from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. Full text in Research Archive
Røysamb, Espen (2022). Psykiske vansker. Ikke født sånn, men heller ikke bare blitt sånn. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA

Funding

Project number: 320709

Collaborators

The project is based at PROMENTA Research Center, at the Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, and is part of the ‘Quality of Life in Families’ project. National and international researchers in the fields of Psychology, Sociology, Demography, Econometrics, and Genetics are involved. We also collaborate with the WHO Healthy Cities Network in Norway. Other key partnerships include the Norwegian Institute of Public Health and Viken County.

Published Dec. 9, 2024 1:42 PM - Last modified Sep. 16, 2026 11:14 AM