Writing Advice: Common Elements of an Assignment

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Introduction

The introduction should lay the foundation for your research question and explain why your topic is relevant and timely within the discipline. It should also capture the reader’s attention.

You can think of the introduction as having three parts. First, present the topic of the assignment and explain why it is important and academically relevant. Second, present your research question and convince the reader that it is a useful way to examine the broader topic. Finally, give the reader an overview of the structure of the assignment—for example, which theoretical perspectives you use, what empirical data you draw on, your main arguments, and perhaps a brief indication of what the conclusion contains.

Why an introduction?

The introduction is the reader’s first encounter with your text. It is therefore important that it is well structured and carefully considered. It is helpful to prepare the reader for what is to come and explain the purpose of the text. The introduction can also serve as a guide to the rest of the assignment.

Tips for writing an introduction

• The important first impression: The introduction gives the reader a first impression of your text. A good introduction creates a positive impression, so it is worth spending extra time on it.
• Inform and persuade the reader: Do not assume that the reader knows much about your topic or finds it important. Present the topic clearly and explain why it matters.
• Academic relevance: Explain why your topic is interesting and relevant to your course. A personal interest in the topic is valuable, but the research question must also be academically justified. Is the topic widely debated? Is there an academic debate or disagreement? Are there any surprising findings?
• Timeliness: Show why the topic and research question are interesting. There may be many reasons: Is the topic widely debated or contested? Has it not been studied in the way you plan to study it? Engage the reader by explaining why your topic matters.
• Revise the introduction and research question as you go: The introduction is often one of the first and last parts you write. It is common for an assignment to develop in a different direction than you originally expected. Review the introduction and research question at the end to ensure that they match the rest of the assignment.
• When the assignment question is given: If you are answering a set question, for example in a take-home exam, it can still be useful to begin by explaining how you understand the question. This gives the examiner a clearer understanding of your approach.

Research Question

A research question is a clearly worded question that describes what you will investigate in your assignment. It is the overall question that your assignment should answer. How you formulate the research question creates different expectations for how you will approach the assignment. In the social sciences, we often look for relationships between variables that can explain something in society. In general, assignments may be descriptive, explanatory or normative. In political theory, you may also ask conceptual questions.

Descriptive research questions aim to describe a situation, condition, state of knowledge, characteristics of a phenomenon or something similar. Questions about what, who, when and where are relevant here. Explanatory research questions aim to understand why or how something happens. Causal relationships are central here. Normative research questions aim to assess how something in society should be.

Read more in Everything a Political Science Student Needs to Know: Political Science as a Diverse Discipline.

Why a research question?

The purpose of the research question is to describe what you want to find out. It therefore guides the rest of your assignment, including your choice of theory, method and data sources. A good research question is clearly formulated, academically justified and researchable.

Tips for developing a research question

• Is the research question researchable? Consider whether it can be answered within the time and word limit available. Make sure that what you want to investigate can be observed. The question should be narrow enough for the material you can find within the available timeframe to provide an adequate answer.
• Narrowing down the research question: Consider the following elements:
  • Actors: Which country or countries, organisation, population group or similar actors do you want to investigate?
  • Time period: What time period will you examine?
  • Geographical scope: Will you study Russia or the United States, Moscow or Washington, selected European countries, or a local municipality?
  • Level of analysis: International, national or local?
• Use active verbs: When formulating your research question, avoid passive verbs and vague phrases such as “in this assignment, I will look at ...”. Instead, use active verbs such as “describe”, “explain”, “discuss” and “understand”.
• Avoid yes-or-no questions: Yes-or-no questions rarely lead to interesting analysis. Instead, ask questions about how, why or when something happens. You may also ask “to what extent ...”.
• Start writing: You do not need a fully formulated research question before you start writing. If you have a topic that interests you, start writing about it and explore different ideas. Read relevant articles, write down what you already know and note questions that arise. This can help you find the direction of your assignment. Developing a good research question takes time, and it is common to make adjustments during the writing process.

Literature Review

A literature review is a more or less systematic review of existing research. Once you have chosen a topic and research question, you need to familiarise yourself with and explain what has already been written about the topic. A good literature review is thorough, well organised and provides a clear understanding of the research landscape. It shows that you understand the relevant field of research and can place your own study in a wider context.

Why a literature review?

The purpose of a literature review is to give an overview of how your topic has been studied. It may help you identify theories and empirical findings, as well as gaps or contradictions in existing research. It may also help you place your own research in context and show how it builds on, or differs from, previous work.

A literature review is different from theory. When searching the literature, you may find relevant theories to use in your assignment. However, while a literature review can give you ideas about useful theoretical perspectives, the purpose of theory in the assignment is to provide a guide for investigating the research question.

A literature review is also different from a state-of-the-art review. If you are writing a state-of-the-art review, the literature review is also the method you use to answer the research question. The literature then becomes the data for your study. You must explain in the method section how the data were collected, selected and analysed. State-of-the-art reviews have specific requirements for systematic work that do not apply in the same way to an ordinary literature review, which is what is described here.

Tips for literature reviews

• Learn how to search for relevant literature: There are many resources available to help you find relevant literature. Make use of them.
  • Reading lists: Review relevant reading lists available in Leganto to find core and recommended literature.
  • Oria: The University Library database, Oria, is a good starting point for finding relevant books, academic articles and journals.
  • Reference lists: Review the reference lists in relevant articles and books to find additional sources that may be useful for your assignment.
  • Explore academic databases: Visit the University Library’s subject page for political science for information about relevant databases.
  • University Library services: The University Library offers guidance appointments, where you can get help with literature searches.
• Summarise the findings: In your assignment, present only the main points from the literature that are relevant to your topic. You will normally not need to describe every individual contribution in detail.

Theory

Different theories have different purposes, provide different explanations and highlight different aspects of the research question you are investigating. Theory is a broad concept. For example, realism and game theory are classic explanatory models in international politics. In public policy and administration, the theory of homosocial reproduction suggests that leaders hire people who are similar to themselves. Path dependency theory suggests that past events are decisive for the choices made today. In political theory, theories of democracy say something about which values should be protected.

However, theory can be much more than clearly defined assumptions about reality. Theory also includes concepts, previous research, existing findings and assumptions from the literature. Theory is such a broad concept that it may almost be easier to explain what it is not. Theory is, for example, not data. Theory consists of the models and concepts that help us understand data.

Why theory?

The purpose of theory is to provide a guide for investigating the research question. Whatever topic you want to investigate, something similar has probably been studied before. You can use this to your advantage. Draw on concepts, explanations and models from existing literature to develop your own theoretical understanding and/or analytical framework. An analytical framework consists of the variables and/or concepts you draw from theory, together with a description and justification of how they relate to each other and how they will be used in the study.

The purpose of theory is to create a starting point for analysing your research question. Theories help us understand relationships and suggest explanations, but they are not direct reflections of society. Theories can also set out norms for actors, organisations or society as a whole. Theory is therefore useful for making assumptions about possible answers to the research question.

Read more in Everything a Political Science Student Needs to Know: Introduction to Political Science.

Tips for using theory

• Do not feel overwhelmed: Applying theory can seem abstract, especially if it is your first time. Try to see theory as a useful tool that helps you identify which elements are important for your assignment. A good theoretical framework gives you concepts for understanding the phenomena you want to investigate, and preferably the relationship between them. Theory should help you identify relevant and less relevant units for analysis.
• Justify your choices: There are countless theories. It is therefore important to convince the reader that you have made thorough and well-considered choices.
• Avoid turning the theory section into only a literature review: Although the theory section explains relevant theories, you should show how the concepts and elements of the theories are relevant to your analysis. Consider developing an analytical framework. The purpose is to identify relevant variables and/or concepts that you will use in the analysis.
• Limit the analytical framework: Your analytical framework should not be too extensive, as the explanations or assumptions you make require thorough collection of information and data.
• Share your expectations about findings: Explain what outcomes the theory or theories lead you to expect. How are actors expected to relate to one another according to the selected theory or theories? How might the theory and variables you include be expected to affect your research question?

Method

Method concerns the approach you use to collect the information needed to answer your research question. We broadly distinguish between qualitative and quantitative methods. The method that is suitable for your assignment depends on your research question. In early term papers and exams, the requirements for method and research design are often limited or absent. This becomes more relevant in later courses, and you will learn more in the methods courses STV1010 and STV1020.

Please note that methods in political theory differ significantly from methods in empirical political science. It is not unusual for an assignment in normative political theory not to include a separate method chapter. There are many approaches to normative political theory. In short, these involve balancing principles against moral intuitions or considered moral judgements.

Read more in Everything a Political Science Student Needs to Know: What Is a Political Scientist’s Method? and Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods.

Why method?

The purpose of the methods you learn in political science is to give you a systematic approach to investigating a research question. To answer a research question, you need a clear way of doing so. The method gives you the tools to collect data that you will later use in your analysis.

Operationalisation makes the key concepts in your study concrete. For example, if justice or power are indicators in the theory you use, operationalisation involves specifying how these indicators will be measured.

Read more in Everything a Political Science Student Needs to Know: Why Learn Social Science Methods?

Tips for writing about method

Below are four topics that belong in a method chapter:

• Research design: What type of method have you used? For example, is it a quantitative study, a comparative study or a case study? Why is this method best suited to answer your research question? Always justify your choices.
• Data collection: What type of data have you collected? For example, documents, surveys, interviews or statistics? Have you used existing databases or surveys? How did you collect the data, and why did you choose these sources? Explain and justify the choices you made when selecting data.
• Data analysis: What tools have you used, and what types of analysis have you conducted? For qualitative data, this may include how you transcribed and coded interviews, and any analytical tools you used, such as NVivo. For quantitative analysis, this may include the database or survey you use, how variables are coded and the statistical analysis you have conducted, such as OLS regression.
• Critical assessment of data: Ideally, research findings should be both generalisable and verifiable. It is therefore important to be transparent about your approach and discuss how well your data support conclusions about both what you have studied and contexts beyond it. This involves assessing validity and reliability.
  • Validity (internal validity): concerns whether your research is valid. Are the indicators you selected suitable for answering the research question? Do the data provide a credible answer to the research question?
  • Generalisability (external validity): concerns the extent to which your findings can be applied beyond the specific context you have studied.
  • Reliability (verifiability): concerns the dependability and consistency of the study. Which sources have you used, and how have they been handled? Was the study conducted in a way that would produce the same results if you or someone else repeated it under similar conditions?

Empirical Data

Empirical data refers to the information you collect in a study. Data may also be called source material. In quantitative studies, this is typically numerical information, such as statistics or survey responses. In qualitative studies, the information often consists of words, for example collected through interviews or found in texts or audio files in media or public documents.

The description of empirical data in an assignment should be a “neutral, impersonal and factual presentation of facts” (Heier & Knutsen, 2021, p. 112). In this section, you present the data that are relevant to your research question and describe them as objectively as possible. Research aims to be truthful and reliable, so data should be described without adding your own interpretations.

Why empirical data?

The empirical description provides a necessary basis for the analysis in an assignment. Its purpose is to give the most accurate possible context for the research question. Describing the data makes it possible to identify patterns and relationships, and to understand the findings when you analyse them later.

Tips for presenting empirical data

• Description and analysis: To ensure credibility, it is important to distinguish between the empirical description and the analysis. Avoid mixing your own interpretations and subjective opinions with your empirical findings.
  • Description: Here, you present the data while maintaining an objective distance from the source material. Give the reader as objective an account as possible, based on verifiable information from reliable sources.
  • Analysis: Here, you present your own assessments based on the relevant theory and/or analytical framework. The analysis may include logical inferences and/or discussion of the empirical data.
• There are many ways to organise the empirical description: In most cases, it is useful to present empirical data in a separate chapter. However, it may sometimes be appropriate to present empirical data and analysis together, for example in thematic chapters. In all cases, it is essential that one part of the chapter presents the empirical data and another part presents your analysis—and that the two are not mixed.

Analysis

Analysis involves discussing the findings you have described in the empirical section in light of the research question. Here, you break the research question down into smaller parts and examine them from different perspectives. You do this by discussing and assessing your findings from different viewpoints, based on the theory and/or analytical framework you have selected. In the analysis, you interpret the empirical findings. Critically reflect on your sources to ensure analytical credibility. The analysis is the central part of the assignment, where you show what you have found.

Why analysis?

The purpose of analysis is to understand. What can the data you have collected tell you about the question posed in your research question? By interpreting your empirical data, you can discuss possible relationships that shed light on the research question. This should enable you to draw reliable conclusions for the conclusion section.

Tips for analysis

• Structure: There are several ways to structure an analysis. The most important thing is to have a clear structure and to use the concepts or theories you have introduced. If you have developed an analytical framework in the theory section, this should be the starting point for your analysis. It can be useful to try different outlines to find the structure that works best.
• Return to the research question: It is easy to lose focus while writing. As you read more and collect data, the assignment may develop in directions you did not anticipate. For the assignment to be successful, the analysis must remain closely connected to the research question.
• Return to the theory section: The analysis should connect to the theory section, clarification of concepts and/or analytical framework. If you mention issues in the analysis that have not been explained in the theory section, you may need to add them there or consider whether they belong in the analysis.
• Interim conclusions: Consider summarising your findings throughout the analysis so that the final conclusion can be brief and precise.
• Take counterarguments seriously: Even if you are arguing for a particular claim, you should consider arguments both for and against it. Strong counterarguments do not make your claim weak or invalid. On the contrary, presenting counterarguments demonstrates maturity, critical thinking and reflection. Addressing objections strengthens the credibility of your arguments and improves the quality of your assignment.
• You do not need to be definitive: You can argue for and against claims without having to reach one clear answer to your research question.

Conclusion

The conclusion is the final part of the assignment. In the conclusion, return to your introduction and research question, and present the main answers and conclusions from your study. Conclusions should be based on the analysis that has been carried out. Do not introduce new descriptions, analyses or empirical data.

Why a conclusion?

The main purpose of the conclusion is to summarise the most important findings of the assignment for the reader. Return to the research question to make sure you have answered what you set out to answer in the introduction.

Tips for writing a conclusion

• Summary: It can be useful to begin the conclusion by restating the research question. Remind the reader what you have tried to find out, as well as the context and overall purpose of the question—that is, why it is relevant.
• Avoid focusing on details: The conclusion does not need long explanations, descriptions or discussions, as these have already been provided earlier in the assignment. Instead, present the overall picture and include the key descriptions and interim conclusions from the analysis.
• Assess the study: The conclusion is a good opportunity to evaluate the strengths and limitations of your conclusions. How do your findings compare with what others have found? How do you assess the explanatory power of the different theories in relation to the research question?
• Be modest: In political science assignments, we can rarely present indisputable measurements or a final answer with complete certainty. Social science questions concern social interaction, which cannot easily be modelled. Your conclusion should therefore avoid being overly definitive and include necessary reservations.
• Ensure a clear connection: The introduction and conclusion should be closely connected. Make sure the assignment ends in the way you indicated in the introduction. If you mention something in the conclusion that has not been discussed earlier in the assignment, remove it.
• Consider looking ahead: You may present alternative explanations and suggest topics for future research. However, this is usually most relevant in larger assignments.

Citations and Reference List

Citation means identifying the sources you have used from others in your work. The reference list should contain accurate descriptions of the books, articles, webpages and other sources you have used. You should also cite these sources throughout the text.

The reference list is placed at the end of the assignment. It includes all information needed to identify and locate sources, such as author, title, publication year and place of publication. There are several reference styles, including APA, Chicago and Harvard. Your course page will always state which style to use. The most important thing is to use one reference style consistently throughout the assignment.

Why citations and a reference list?

A fundamental principle of academic writing is that you must not present other people’s ideas as your own. By citing sources, you follow ethical guidelines and avoid plagiarism and academic misconduct. Accurate citations allow others to verify the information you present, which strengthens the credibility of your work. Giving credit to the original authors for their ideas and research is also respectful and recognises their work. By following citation guidelines and preparing an accurate reference list, you maintain the integrity of your academic work and contribute to open and honest academic dialogue.

Tips for citations and reference lists

Here are some useful links to help you cite sources and prepare a reference list:

• Search and Write: Shows you how to use different reference styles and citation rules.
• Academic Writing Centre: Book a guidance appointment for help with referencing and academic writing.
• University Library:
  • See All about referencing for information about reference styles, upcoming courses and guidance on referencing.
  • See Reference styles in the social sciences for specific information about social science referencing.
• Reference management tools: Use tools such as Zotero or EndNote to organise and format your sources.
• Course page: Always check the course page for information about which reference style to use.
• General rules: Familiarise yourself with the University’s general rules for source use and references.
• Avoid plagiarism and academic misconduct: Familiarise yourself with the University’s rules on plagiarism and academic misconduct.

Useful Resources

Resources on academic writing

• Everything a Political Science Student Needs to Know
• Academic Writing Centre
• Search and Write

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

The main purpose of academic writing is not simply to produce text—there is already more than enough text in the world. When you study, you write to develop your own writing skills, which takes time and effort. Writing helps you think critically and formulate your own ideas. This is essential for effective communication. We therefore recommend using artificial intelligence as a support tool, but never allowing it to write for you.

Read more in Everything a Political Science Student Needs to Know: Writing as a Skill and Tool.

Useful resources on using AI

• GPT UiO: The University of Oslo has developed a GPT tool that protects privacy.
• Using AI as a student: Learn how you can use AI tools as a student.
• Ethics and social responsibility: Learn about the ethical aspects and social responsibility involved in using AI.