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Alongside the increasing accessibility of smartphones, nonconsensual sharing of intimate images (NCSII) has become a pressing social problem, annually affecting around five percent of Norwegian adolescents. To support the identification of promising strategies for preventing NCSII and mitigating its harmful outcomes, this thesis seeks to advance current understanding of the driving forces of intimate image dissemination. Recognizing the relevance of all three parties inherently involved in the violation, the thesis adopts a tripartite approach addressing knowledge gaps concerning victims (Paper I), perpetrators (Paper II), and bystanders (Paper III) of NCSII.
Specifically, drawing on interviews with 20 young Norwegians, Paper I explores lived experiences of NCSII victimization. Taking inspiration from appraisal theory, we sought to elucidate how variations in the psychological outcomes described by participants were narratively linked to subjective evaluations of the threats, losses, and harms posed by the NCSII incidents. Furthermore, looking for patterns of meaning across interviews, we aimed to explore how these appraisals in turn may have been shaped by the situational, personal, and sociocultural conditions of participants. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we found that participants tended to describe their experiences of NCSII as involving multiple layers of victimization—namely being (1) robbed of bodily autonomy, (2) stripped of privacy, (3) subjected to public scrutiny, and (4) trapped in a state of uncertainty. Disentangling different appraisals of each violation, we found that participants’ evaluations appeared to be shaped by their gender, self-image, and background, as well as the nature of their relationship with the perpetrator, the perceived scope of the image dissemination, and how bystanders responded to the incident. Despite this complexity, we found that participants tended to emphasize their fears of, and experiences with, facing negative reactions from other people as particularly distressing, underscoring the crucial role of bystanders in the harms of NCSII incidents.
In Paper II, we turn our attention to perpetrators, with an aim to identify and distill extant knowledge about the psychosocial mechanisms of NCSII. In particular, we focused on research concerning perpetrator motives and characteristics, as well as the social dynamics of NCSII incidents. Using a mixed methods synthesis approach, we carried out a systematic literature search for peer-reviewed studies that resulted in the identification of 10,324 unique records. Following screening and full-text evaluation, we included 68 articles, of which 55 reported quantitative and 13 reported qualitative studies. Overall, our review revealed inconsistent findings regarding the psychosocial characteristics of NCSII perpetrators. There were, however, two notable exceptions. First, while analyses of the relationship with gender indicated that being male was not a robust predictor of perpetration, no studies found that girls or women are more likely to be perpetrators than boys or men. Second, a significant positive association was consistently observed between NCSII perpetration and victimization, as well as other intimate image-sharing practices. Regarding motives, quantitative studies revealed some gendered patterns. Yet, in general, they found that perpetrators commonly reported amusement, showing off, belonging, rewards, and support as their reasons for sharing images, highlighting the social nature of NCSII perpetration. Complementing these findings, qualitative studies emphasized that NCSII often serves as a form of homosocial bonding, framed within a broader social context of hegemonic masculinity, female sexual objectification, and misogyny.
As the findings of both previous papers underscore the importance of bystanders, Paper III seeks to further elucidate their responses to NCSII incidents. More specifically, taking inspiration from the participant role approach to school bullying, we sought to develop a measure of bystander role orientations. Based on an initial conceptualization comprising eight hypothetical dimensions, we devised a list of 63 candidate items. Following expert feedback, a cognitive interview, and pilot analyses, the item pool was refined to 44 items. The dimensionality, internal consistency, measurement invariance, and validity of the instrument was then assessed using data from 814 adolescents (ages 16-20 yeas). Using one half of the sample, the item pool was analyzed using exploratory factor analysis. After comparing different factor solutions, we retained a 16-item four-dimensional model deemed to reflect “insider,” “moralist,” “objector,” and “supporter” bystander responses. This model was then tested on the other half of the sample using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which demonstrated acceptable fit and outperformed alternative models. Subsequent analyses with the full sample supported the scale’s internal consistency, measurement invariance, and validity. Notably, our validity analyses indicated that bystander role orientations may be linked to gender, sexual orientation, prior NCSII experiences, empathy, dark personality traits, and victim-blaming attitudes.
Drawing on insights from the above studies, I develop a socio-ecological model of the causes and consequences of NCSII, elucidating driving forces at individual, interpersonal, community, and societal levels of influence. In summary, the model suggests that NCSII primarily transpires as a social activity, that is shaped by and reinforces cultural forces such as hegemonic masculinity, female sexual objectification, sexual morality, and, in some cases, misogyny. Importantly, these conditions also amplify the harms of victimization, in the sense that they seem to foster worries about the social implications of having an intimate image disseminated, and may trigger acts of secondary victimization, including sexual harassment, bullying, and social exclusion. In light of this, developing primary interventions that promote critical thinking about cultural conceptions of gender and sexuality, while also cultivating skills for victim-supportive bystander intervention, may be a promising prevention strategy.
