Merete Glenne Øie

• Köder, Franziska; Sharma, Curtis; Rummelhoff, Cecilie; Garraffa, Maria & Øie, Merete Glenne (2026). The Impact of Multilingualism and Immigration Background on Attention Difficulties and ADHD Diagnoses: Findings From a Large Cohort Study in Norway. Journal of Attention Disorders. ISSN 1087-0547. doi: 10.1177/10870547261478017. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: This study aims to investigate the relationship between children’s multilingualism, immigration background, and their attention difficulties, as well as the prevalence of ADHD diagnoses. Methods: Questionnaire data on 70,102 children from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), including parental ratings of attention difficulties (Child Behavior Checklist, Parent/Teacher Rating Scale for Disruptive Behavior Disorders) and multilingual language use, was linked with registry data from the Norwegian Patient Registry concerning ADHD diagnoses. Results: Our findings indicate that multilingual children exhibited higher ratings of attention difficulties compared to their monolingual peers. However, the prevalence of ADHD diagnoses did not show significant differences based on multilingualism or parental language background. Nevertheless, there are indications that children with mothers from North Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania may be at risk of being underdiagnosed for ADHD in Norway. In addition, girls whose mothers spoke a native language other than Norwegian were diagnosed with ADHD significantly later than girls with native Norwegian-speaking mothers. Conclusion: Our results raise concerns about the validity of parental questionnaires, such as the Child Behavior Checklist, in assessing attention difficulties across various cultural and linguistic backgrounds, as well as the overall quality of ADHD evaluations for these children. The delayed ADHD diagnoses among daughters of immigrant mothers highlight potential systemic inequalities within the Norwegian healthcare system, emphasizing the need for linguistically and culturally sensitive assessment tools to better support neurodiverse children from diverse backgrounds.

• Øie, Merete Glenne & Gulsrud, Anne Myge (2026). Hvilken rolle har nevropsykologisk undersøkelse i utredning, forståelse og behandling av personer med ADHD? Nevropsykologi : Medlemsblad for Norsk Nevropsykologisk Forening. ISSN 1500-8347. 1, p. 10–23. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Formål: Formålet med artikkelen er å drøfte hvilken plass nevropsykologisk utredning bør ha i utredning, forståelse og oppfølging av personer med ADHD, med særlig vekt på hva objektive kognitive tester og selv- og komparent rapportering av kognitive vansker i hverdagen kan bidra med. Metode: Artikkelen er en narrativ oversiktsartikkel basert på nyere meta-analyser og systematiske oversikter om nevropsykologisk funksjon hos barn, ungdom og voksne med ADHD, hovedsakelig publisert de siste 5–8 årene, supplert med nasjonale retningslinjer, forfatternes egne forskningsbidrag og kliniske erfaring. Litteratur ble identifisert gjen nom søk i Google Scholar med relevante søkeord, blant annet «nevro psykologi» og «ADHD», med siste søk 24.02.26. Det er ikke gjennomført formell kvalitativ eller kvantitativ syntese. Resultater: Personer med ADHD skårer i gjennomsnitt dårligere enn nevrotypiske kontrollpersoner på flere kogni tive tester, særlig reaksjonstidsvariabilitet, årvåkenhet, arbeidsminne, inhibisjon og andre eksekutive funksjoner. Effektstørrelsene er oftest moderate, og det er betydelig overlapp mellom grupper og stor individuell variasjon; mange personer med ADHD har testskårer i normalområdet. Nevropsykologisk utredning kan bidra til et mer presist bilde av individuelle kognitive styrker og sårbarheter, identifisere tilleggsvansker som ikke fanges opp av symptommål alene, supplere differensialdiagnostiske vurderinger og gi grunnlag for behandlingsvalg og tilrettelegging. Selv- og komparentrapport om kognitiv fungering i hverdagen tilfører informasjon som ikke alltid fanges opp av objektive tester. Samtidig er kognitive vansker lite spesifikke for ADHD og forekommer ved en rekke andre psykiske og soma tiske tilstander. Konklusjon: Nevropsykologiske tester og kognitive spørreskjemaer kan ikke brukes som selvstendige diagnostiske verktøy ved ADHD, og funn må alltid tolkes som del av en bred klinisk vurdering. Samtidig kan nevropsykologisk utredning øke forståelsen av kognitive vansker og hverdagsutfordringer, og dermed bidra til mer målrettet behand lingsplanlegging, tilrettelegging og oppfølging.

• Øie, Merete Glenne; Fernando, Barbosa,; Sandra, Lettner,; Gus, Baker,; Cedric, Duarte, & Hessen, Erik [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). Why clinical neuropsychology matters in schizophrenia care. Frontiers in Psychology. 16, p. 1–12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1713751. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cognitive impairments in schizophrenia are widespread, persistent throughout the illness course, and significantly impact quality of life and functional outcomes. Integrating neuropsychological evaluations into routine clinical care is essential for early identification of cognitive impairments. This approach facilitates the implementation of personalized treatment strategies, including tailored neuropsychological rehabilitation, to promote functional recovery. Although recommended by national and international guidelines, many individuals with schizophrenia do not receive neuropsychological assessment. This article emphasizes the integral role of clinical neuropsychology in schizophrenia care, focusing on six key areas: (1) cognitive domains to assess; (2) addressing subjective cognitive complaints; (3) the impact of symptoms, medication, and substance use on cognitive function; (4) test administration and evaluation procedures; (5) the utilization of neuropsychological results and feedback; and (6) the design and implementation of individualized neuropsychological rehabilitation.

• Skogli, Erik Winther; Andersen, Per Normann; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Øverland, Elisabeth; Kjørren, Eldri Skjelkvåle & Hovik, Kjell Tore [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2025). Deliberate and Affective Driven Decision-Making. A 10-Year Longitudinal Study of Decision-Making in Autism. Developmental Neuropsychology. ISSN 8756-5641. p. 1–16. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2025.2595934. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We investigated the developmental trajectory of decision-making in autistic individuals from childhood into emerging adulthood and examined the impact of internalizing symptoms on decision-making strategies. Thirty-eight autistic and 50 non-autistic individuals were assessed at baseline (Mage = 11.8 years, 72.7% boys), at 2-year, and 10-year follow-up. Autistic and non-autistic individuals showed similar improvements in decision-making performance over time. However, the autistic participants exhibited a more risk-averse decision-making style compared to the non-autistic participants. The pattern of risk-averse decision-making in the autistic individuals reflected a more deliberate thinking style in advantageous situations and the influence of internalizing symptoms in disadvantageous situations.

• Grimstad, Kristoffer; Sørensen, Håkon; Vaskinn, Anja; Mohn, Hanne Christine; Glastad, Stine Holmstul & Andreassen, Ole [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2025). Subjective cognition in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: Investigation of group differences and associations with objective cognition and clinical characteristics using a novel measure of subjective cognition. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 40. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2025.100345. Full text in Research Archive
• Haug, Elisabeth; Øie, Merete Glenne; Svendsen, Ingrid Hartveit; Møller, Paul; Nelson, Barnaby & Melle, Ingrid (2025). Basic self-disorders may play a role in the development of depression in schizophrenia: a seven-year follow-up study. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 15. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1521366. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction: Depression is the most common co-morbid psychiatric disorder in patients with schizophrenia and has a negative effect on functional outcomes and quality of life. There are several possible pathways leading to depressive symptoms in schizophrenia. Self-disorders are disturbances in the deepest, pre-reflective level of the self and are suggested to be core features of schizophrenia. The relationship between self-disorders, and depressive symptoms has only been studied to a limited extent, and there are no longitudinal studies. This study aimed to explore the relationship between self-disorders at baseline and the development of depression over the follow-up period. Methods: Self-disorders were examined with the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) instrument in 31 patients with schizophrenia during their first treatment. Seven years later we measured the total number of depressive episodes since the start of treatment. Results: We found a clear association between self-disorders at baseline and the total number of depressive episodes over the follow-up period. Discussion: Self-disorders may play a role in the development of depression in schizophrenia. This may have implications for therapeutic approaches targeting a condition that is characterized by considerable suffering and an elevated risk of suicide.

• Orm, Stian; Wood, Jeffrey J.; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Adams, Keenan; Andersen, Per Normann & Fjermestad, Krister Westlye [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2025). Anxiety Symptoms Predict Subsequent Depressive Symptoms in Neurodivergent Youth: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. ISSN 2730-7166. 53(3), p. 429–441. doi: 10.1007/s10802-025-01292-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Neurodivergent youth often experience anxiety and depressive symptoms that may hamper adaptive functioning and well-being. There is little knowledge of how anxiety and depression are related in neurodivergent youth. Therefore, we aimed to examine whether the relationship between anxiety and depressive symptoms is uni- or bidirectional in neurodiverse youth. We assessed self-reported anxiety and depressive symptoms over time in 173 youth (Mbaseline age = 11.7 years, SD = 2.1, 64% males, 36% females). The sample comprised 38 autistic youth, 85 youth diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and 50 comparison youth assessed at baseline (T1), 2-year follow-up (T2, 97% retention), and 10-year follow-up (T3, 73% retention). We used cross-lagged models to analyze the data. In neurodivergent youth, more anxiety symptoms at T1 and T2 predicted more depressive symptoms at T2 and T3. Preceding anxiety symptoms were linked with later depressive symptoms, even after accounting for autoregressive effects of depressive symptoms. The results are consistent with a prodromal model in which anxiety symptoms can independently foreshadow the emergence of depressive symptoms over the course of development among neurodivergent youth. Potentially, addressing anxiety symptoms among youth with autism or ADHD could play a role in preventing the onset of youth depression.

• Øverland, Elisabeth; Hauge, Åshild Lappegard; Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Skogli, Erik Winther & Pellicano, Elizabeth [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). “I have to charge my social battery”: Perspectives from autistic young adults on Quality of Life. Autism. ISSN 1362-3613. 28(6), p. 1369–1381. doi: 10.1177/13623613241245578. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Several studies report on lower quality of life for autistic people when compared to non-autistic people. However, there are ongoing discussions about the conceptualization of quality of life for the autistic population. This qualitative study investigated self-perceived quality of life in the context of autistic young adults’ everyday lives. Participants (age range 21–29 years) were recruited from a 10-year follow-up study, Lillehammer Neurodevelopmental Follow-up Study, all diagnosed in childhood and adolescence. Fourteen individual in-depth interviews were conducted. When asked about what was important for having a good quality of life, our autistic participants described relationships to people and pets as important, as well as having meaningful activities. Specific interests had guided many to their choice of both academic and work career. Many also described obstacles in their environment that had influenced their quality of life negatively, such as being misunderstood by teachers and other professionals, being bullied, and sensory and emotional overload. Our findings indicate that those in supportive roles should provide help with establishing connections to activities and people/animals, as this seems to be essential for creating a good quality of life. Taking advantage of passions and interests can create opportunities for autistic people. Findings suggest that future research should address the communication barriers between autistic people and professionals that can lead to misunderstandings

• Orm, Stian; Wood, Jeffrey J.; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann; Fjermestad, Krister Westlye & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Within-Person Effects of Executive Functioning on Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms in Youth with Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Longitudinal Study. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders. ISSN 2366-7532. doi: 10.1007/s41252-024-00421-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives The objective was to disentangle the role of between- and within-person variation in executive functioning (EF) in the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms among youth with neurodevelopmental disorders. Methods We assessed 85 youth with ADHD, 38 youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and 50 typically developing (TD) youth at baseline (Mage = 11.7 years, 64% males), 2-year follow-up, and 10-year follow-up with neuropsychological tests of EF and anxiety and depressive symptoms scales. Results Across groups, depressive symptoms increased with age, whereas anxiety symptoms were stable. Greater within-person improvement in overall EF from baseline to 2-year follow-up predicted reduced anxiety symptoms. Greater within-person improvement in cognitive flexibility predicted reduced depressive symptoms from baseline to 2-year follow-up. Conclusions We conclude that improvement in EF skills in youth may lessen the severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms over time. Thus, EF could be an intervention target to prevent anxiety and depressive symptoms.

• Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Øie, Merete Glenne; Orm, Stian; Andersen, Per Normann & Skogli, Erik Winther (2024). Longitudinal Predictors of Adaptive Functioning in Emerging Adults with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. ISSN 2730-7166. 53. doi: 10.1007/s10802-024-01265-y. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display heterogeneity in adaptive functioning, underscoring the need to identify predictors to inform clinical and scientific interventions. We investigated the longitudinal associations between an autism diagnosis, co-occurring psychopathology symptoms, executive functions (EF) and subsequent adaptive functioning in individuals with and without ASD (IQ > 70). Sixty-six individuals (26 with ASD, 40 without ASD) were assessed at baseline (mean age = 11.8 years, SD = 2.1) and at 10-year follow-up (mean age 21.4, SD = 2.3). The diagnostic evaluation comprised a comprehensive assessment of autism symptoms and emotional and cognitive functioning. Co-occurring psychopathology symptoms were assessed with two measures: self-reported depressive symptoms with the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire and parent-reported total problems with the Child Behavior Checklist 6–18. Participants completed neuropsychological tests to evaluate EF. We investigated adaptive functioning by using the Weiss Functional Impairment Rating Scale (WFIRS) which is a self-report measure of impairment in the following domains: family, work, school, life skills, self-concept, social and risk-taking. Among the emerging adults previously diagnosed with ASD, 46% reported living independently, 75% had at least one friend, and 71% were employed or in education. Individuals with ASD reported significantly lower adaptive functioning compared to individuals without ASD (WFIRS Total, Hedges’ g = 0.92). Greater EF difficulties in childhood/adolescence predicted lower adaptive functioning in emerging adulthood, surpassing the influence of autism diagnosis and co-occurring symptoms. The findings highlight the influential role of EF, implying that interventions targeting EF difficulties could improve long-term outcomes for individuals with ASD.

• Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne & Haugen, Ingvild (2024). Iowa Gambling Task performance in individuals with schizophrenia: The role of general versus specific cognitive abilities. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 15. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1454276. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: We aimed to explore how specific cognitive processes, such as attention and executive functions, account for variance in decision-making measured by Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) performance among individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Methods: Adults (N = 65, Mage = 25.4) with schizophrenia spectrum disorders participating in a clinical trial (registered at clinicaltrials.gov NCT03048695) completed the IGT, neuropsychological tests of attention, response inhibition, mental flexibility, working memory, and planning, as well as subtests from the Wechsler tests of intelligence to estimate IQ. Associations between performance on specific tasks, a composite score of executive function and attention, and IGT performance measured in two ways, one using the total net score, decks (C+D) -(A+B) and the other as preference for decks with more frequent gains than losses, decks (B+D) -(A+C), were analyzed with correlational and hierarchical regression analysis controlling for estimated IQ and psychotic symptoms, measured by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. Results: In the regression analyses, the strongest predictor of IGT performance measured as the total net score was estimated IQ (b = 1.43, p < .001). Neither specific cognitive tasks nor the composite score of executive functioning significantly contributed to explaining variance in IGT total net score beyond IQ and symptoms of psychosis. However, IQ and symptoms of psychosis did not predict tendency towards selecting decks with different gain-to-loss frequency, whereas poorer composite executive functioning predicted a pattern of selecting decks A and C with more frequent losses, (b = 8.30, p < .05). Discussion: The results suggest that both IQ and executive functions contribute to IGT performance, but in distinct ways. Whereas lower IQ may contribute to overall more disadvantageous decision-making, poorer executive functioning may contribute to a more risk-aversive decision-making style. A clinical implication may be that individuals with schizophrenia and lower IQ or poorer executive functioning will have a higher need for support and interventions targeting decision-making.

• Adriaenssen, Daniel Johannessen; Farmen, Anette Huuse; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2024). Impaired executive functioning in children of women with epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior. ISSN 1525-5050. 156, p. 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109864. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective While neurodevelopmental symptoms are often seen in children of mothers with epilepsy, research specifically addressing executive function (EF) in this population is limited. This study aims to investigate EF in children of mothers with epilepsy, both with and without fetal exposure to anti-seizure medications, compared to typically developing children whose mothers do not have epilepsy. Methods We evaluated EF in children aged 8 to 17 years born to mothers with clinically validated diagnoses of epilepsy, using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function completed by the mothers. The results were then compared to a typically developing control group at the same age living in the same geographic area. Results The results showed significantly higher levels of EF problems in children of mothers with epilepsy who were exposed (p = 0.005, d = 0.63), and unexposed (p = 0.001, d = 0.74) to anti-seizure medications during pregnancy, compared to typically developing children. There was no significant difference in EF problems between the exposed and unexposed groups. These findings remained statistically significant after adjusting for mothers’ education levels, and when excluding participants exposed to valproate during pregnancy. Significance This study highlights the increased risk of EF problems in children of mothers with epilepsy, independent of exposure to anti-seizure medications. Findings underscore the importance of continuous monitoring of EF in these children and highlights the need for further research into the diverse factors affecting EF development in this group.

• Øverland, Elisabeth; Andersen, Per Normann; Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Skogli, Erik Winther & Hauge, Åshild Lappegard (2024). “I Have Tried to Fit In, but I Just Want to Be Me”: Development Toward Identity Formation in Young Autistic Adults. Autism in Adulthood. ISSN 2573-9581. doi: 10.1089/aut.2024.0156. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Background: Research increasingly focuses on how autistic individuals use different strategies to adapt to their social environment. Awareness about how these strategies could impact well-being is essential. In this study, we aimed to explore the developmental perspective of social strategies and identity formation from childhood to young adulthood among young autistic adults. Methods: Participants were initially recruited in 2009 when diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder at Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) centers in one region of Norway (Mage = 12 years). For this follow-up study, 14 participants agreed to take part in individual in-depth, semistructured interviews conducted ∼12 years later. We applied reflexive thematic analysis to the interview material. Results: From the analysis of the interviews, we identified one overarching theme: I have tried to fit in, but I just want to be me: Development toward agency. The overarching theme represents an ongoing process of agency, tied to three main themes. Participants reported functioning differently in social situations throughout development (Theme 1) when compared with non-autistic peers. Consequently, they reflected on helpful strategies (Theme 2) that they found beneficial in navigating the social world. Gradually, the participants developed identity formation toward acceptance of being different (Theme 3). Conclusion: This study highlights the complexity of social interaction and self-perception in autism. Participants recognized their unique ways of interacting and used various strategies to fit in. Growing older, they became more self-aware and preferred social situations that met their needs for predictability, quiet environments, and routines. Interestingly, participants did not always view autism as a core part of their identity. This suggests that autistic adults may be more satisfied in acknowledging and appreciating their differences rather than trying to fit into conform identities. Our findings highlight the need to encourage strategies that promote well-being and individuality as autistic individuals become adults.

• Øie, Marie Bjørntvedt; Haugen, Ingvild; Stubberud, Jan Egil & Øie, Merete Glenne (2024). Effects of Goal Management Training on self-efficacy, self-esteem, and quality of life for persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Frontiers in Psychology. 15, p. 1–12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1320986. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Persons with schizophrenia often show executive dysfunction assessed with both subjective (self-report) and objective (neuropsychological tests) measures. In a recent randomized controlled trial (RCT), subjective executive functioning in everyday life was improved following Goal Management Training (GMT). The aim of the current study is to investigate the potential of GMT to improve secondary well-being outcomes from that RCT, including self-esteem, self-efficacy, and quality of life in persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Since well-being is frequently lower in persons with schizophrenia compared to healthy individuals, further knowledge about well-being as an outcome after cognitive remediation may have implications for clinical treatment. Sixty-five participants were randomly assigned to GMT (n = 31) or a waiting list control condition (n = 34). Assessments were conducted at baseline (T1), immediately after the intervention (T2-5 weeks), and at six-month follow-up (T3). Measures included the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Perceived Quality of Life Scale, and the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Results were analyzed using a linear mixed model analysis for repeated measures. There were no significant effects of GMT on self-esteem or quality of life. Only the GMT group showed a significant increase in self-efficacy that was most evident at six months follow-up, F(1, 34) = 10.71, p = 0.002, d = 0.71. Improved self-efficacy was found to correlate significantly with a reduction in perceived executive dysfunction in an exploratory post hoc analysis. Our findings demonstrate the potential of GMT in improving self-efficacy in schizophrenia Clinical trial registration:https://clinicaltrials.gov, NCT03048695.

• Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Orm, Stian; Andersen, Per Normann; Geurts, Hilde M; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2023). Childhood executive function predicts internalizing and externalizing symptoms in emerging adults with and without autism: A 10-year longitudinal study. Developmental Neuropsychology. ISSN 8756-5641. 48(3), p. 97–111. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2023.2206663. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing individuals were assessed on three neuropsychological tests of executive function (EF) and on scales of autism symptoms and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing symptoms at baseline (T1; N = 88, Mage = 11.8 years, 73% males), 2-year (T2; 99% retention, Mage = 13.9 years), and 10-year follow-ups (T3; 75% retention, Mage = 21.4 years). An EF composite score from T1 significantly predicted internalizing symptoms at T2 (β = .228) and internalizing and externalizing symptoms at T3 (β = .431 and .478, respectively), when controlling for age and autism symptoms. OThe findings suggest that EF difficulties are a long-term risk factor for more co-occurring symptoms.

• Øie, Merete Glenne; Storaas, Tor Amund Voll & Egeland, Jens (2023). Neuropsychological and Symptom Predictors of Diagnostic Persistence in ADHD: A 25-Year Follow-up Study. Journal of Attention Disorders. ISSN 1087-0547. 27(6), p. 1–11. doi: 10.1177/10870547231154903. Full text in Research Archive
• Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Fjermestad, Krister Westlye; Andersen, Per Normann & Skogli, Erik Winther (2023). Predictors of Quality of Life and Functional Impairments in Emerging Adults With and Without ADHD: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study. Journal of Attention Disorders. ISSN 1087-0547. 27(5), p. 458–469. doi: 10.1177/10870547231153962. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: We tested the hypotheses that (1) a diagnosis of ADHD in childhood or adolescence is associated with reduced quality of life (QoL) and everyday functioning in emerging adulthood, and (2) executive function (EF) deficits, internalizing difficulties, and ADHD symptoms predict reduced QoL and more functional impairments. Method: We assessed 85 children and adolescents with ADHD and 50 typically developing (TD) peers at baseline (Mage = 11.6 years, 58% males), 2-year follow-up, and 10-year follow-up with neuropsychological tests of EF and self-reports. Results: Individuals with ADHD reported lower QoL and functional impairments in emerging adulthood compared to TD peers. More internalizing difficulties and ADHD symptoms at baseline and 2-year follow-up significantly predicted lower QoL and more functional impairments at the 10-year follow-up. Conclusion: ADHD and internalizing difficulties in childhood or adolescence have a negative impact on QoL and everyday functioning in emerging adulthood. Keywords: ADHD; anxiety; depression; executive function; functional impairments; longitudinal; quality of life.

• Gravråkmo, Sissel; Henry, Lucy; Olsen, Alexander; Øie, Merete Glenne; Lydersen, Stian & Ingul, Jo Magne (2023). Associations between intelligence, everyday executive functions, and symptoms of mental health problems in children and adolescents with mild intellectual disability. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities (IJDD). ISSN 2047-3869. doi: 10.1080/20473869.2023.2230412. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities have been found to have a higher prevalence of symptoms of mental health problems than the general population, but it is unclear whether these challenges are related to intelligence. The aim of this study was to explore the associations among symptoms of mental health problems, everyday executive functions and intelligence in this group. Methods: Forty children and adolescents, pre-diagnosed with mild intellectual disability, were assessed for symptoms of mental health problems, intelligence, and everyday executive functions. The associations were explored using linear regression analyses. Results: Symptoms of mental health problems were associated with everyday executive functions but not with intelligence. The prevalence of mental health problems within the group was three to four times higher than what is typically observed in the general population. Conclusion: Although a remarkably high prevalence of symptoms of mental health problems was found among children and adolescents with pre-diagnosed mild intellectual disability, no relationship to intelligence was discovered in this population. Instead, a relationship between everyday executive functions and symptoms of mental health problems was found. Assessing everyday executive functions in children and adolescents with mild intellectual disability can provide valuable information about what support should be provided to prevent mental health problems in this population.

• Andersen, Per Normann; Orm, Stian; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2023). Adolescence internalizing problems as a mediator between autism diagnosis in childhood and quality of life in emerging adults with and without autism: a 10-year longitudinal study. BMC Psychiatry. 23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12888-023-04635-w. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Individuals with autism tend to have a reduced quality of life across their lifespan. This reduced quality of life may be a result of autism traits, mental distress, and poor person/environment fit. In this longitudinal study, we looked at the role of adolescence internalizing and externalizing problems in mediating the relationship between having an autism diagnosis from childhood and perceived quality of life as emerging adults.Methods A total of 66 participants in a group of emerging adults with autism (mean age 22.2 years), and without autism (mean age 20.9 years) were assessed in three assessment waves (T1 at 12 years, T2 at 14 years, and T3 at 22 years of age). Parents filled out the Child Behavior Checklist at T2 and participants filled out the Perceived Quality of Life Questionnaire at T3. Total and indirect effects were tested in serial mediation analysis.Results The results showed that internalizing problems fully mediated the association between childhood autism diagnosis and the quality of life in emerging adulthood, while externalizing problems did not.Conclusion Our findings suggest that attention to adolescent internalizing problems is important to improve the later quality of life for emerging adults with autism.

• Dyresen, Agnete; Stubberud, Jan Egil; Fjermestad, Krister Westlye; Haugen, Ingvild & Øie, Merete Glenne (2023). Executive control training for adolescents with ADHD: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Contemporary Clinical Trials. ISSN 1551-7144. 136. doi: 10.1016/j.cct.2023.107404. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental conditions diagnosed during childhood and adolescence. In addition to the commonly observed symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, individuals with ADHD often experience impairments in executive functions (EFs). Goal management training (GMT) is a cognitive remediation intervention targeting EFs, with empirical support from studies with adult populations, including ADHD. The objective of the upcoming trial is to assess the effectiveness of GMT for adolescents with ADHD. Methods: This pre-registered protocol outlines a multi-centre randomised controlled trial (RCT) comparing GMT to treatment as usual (TAU) to improve EFs. We aim to recruit 120 participants, aged 12 to 18 years, recently diagnosed with ADHD. Participants will be randomly allocated to the group-based GMT intervention in addition to TAU, or the TAU condition, through block randomisation with site stratification. GMT will be delivered in groups of four to six participants, with weekly two-hour sessions for seven weeks, complemented by separate parent and teacher sessions. TAU is standard community mental health treatment. The primary outcome measure will be parent-reported EF assessed with the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function 2 (BRIEF-2). Secondary outcomes will include ADHD symptom measures, social functioning, quality of life, and neuropsychological tests (attention span, inhibition, working memory, and visuo-motor speed). The outcome assessments will be conducted at baseline, 12 weeks, 12 months, and 24 months post-treatment. Conclusion: The study findings will contribute to determine the effectiveness of a non-pharmacological ADHD treatment, including outcome trajectories up to 24 months post-treatment.

• Jensen, Vegar Hattestad; Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Andersen, Per Normann; Hovik, Kjell Tore & Skogli, Erik Winther (2023). Executive functions and ADHD symptoms predict educational functioning in children with ADHD: A two-year longitudinal study. Applied neuropsychology: Child. ISSN 2162-2965. doi: 10.1080/21622965.2023.2292264. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The aim of this two-year longitudinal study was to investigate whether deficits in executive functions (EF) predict impaired everyday functioning after two years in children and adolescents with ADHD. A sample of 135 participants with and without ADHD were assessed with neuropsychological tests of EF and parent ratings of everyday functioning with the Child Behavior Checklist at baseline (Mage = 11.6, SD = 2.0), and after two years (Mage = 13.6, SD = 2.1). Results showed that ADHD symptoms and impaired EF at baseline predicted lower educational functioning when controlling for general cognitive ability (i.e. "IQ") at two-year follow-up. Furthermore, the results indicated that increased ADHD symptoms predicted problems both with social functioning and functioning in leisure activities (i.e. sport/hobbies/chores/jobs), whereas higher IQ predicted better functioning in leisure activities. The current study primarily highlights the importance of detecting and treating ADHD symptoms in order to prevent reduced functional outcomes, and that EF tests may contribute to identify children in need of educational interventions targeting EF deficits.

• Haug, Elisabeth; Øie, Merete Glenne; Svendsen, Ingrid Hartveit; Møller, Paul; Nelson, Barnaby & Melle, Ingrid (2023). A seven-year longitudinal study of the association between neurocognitive function and basic self-disorders in schizophrenia. Frontiers in Psychology. 14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1124859. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction: Basic self-disorders (SDs) and neurocognitive impairments are fundamental trait-like aspects of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. There has been little research on the association between SDs and neurocognitive impairments in schizophrenia, and no longitudinal studies have investigated if they are related. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between SDs and neurocognitive function in a follow-up study of patients with schizophrenia. Methods: SDs and neurocognition were examined in 35 patients with schizophrenia during their first treatment and 7 years later (mean 7.1, SD 0.42). SDs were examined with the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) instrument. The neurocognitive examination included assessments of psychomotor speed, executive- and memory functions. Results: Poorer executive functions at baseline were significantly associated with more SDs 7 years later and smaller reductions in SDs over time. There were no significant associations between other neurocognitive functions and SDs. Discussion: Executive functions are important for self-regulation, and impairments in these functions in everyday life may have an impact on the development and/or persistence of SDs. Keywords: executive function; phenomenology; psychoses; self disturbance; verbal memory. Copyright © 2023 Haug, Øie, Svendsen, Møller, Nelson and Melle.

• Gosling, Corentin J.; Caparos, Serge; Pinabiaux, Charlotte; Schwarzer, Guido; Rücker, Gerta & Agha, Sharifah Shameem [Show all 53 contributors for this article] (2023). Association between relative age at school and persistence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in prospective studies: an individual participant data meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry. ISSN 2215-0374. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(23)00272-9. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background. The youngest children in a school class are more likely than the oldest to be diagnosed with ADHD, but this relative age effect is less frequent in older than in younger school-grade children. However, no study has explored the association between relative age and the persistence of ADHD diagnosis at older ages. We aimed to quantify the association between relative age and persistence of ADHD at older ages. Methods. For this meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and PubPsych up to April 1, 2022, with terms related to “cohort” and “ADHD” with no date, publication type, or language restrictions. We gathered individual participant data from prospective cohorts that included at least ten children identified with ADHD before age 10 years. ADHD was defined by either a clinical diagnosis or symptoms exceeding clinical cutoffs. Relative age was recorded as the month of birth in relation to the school-entry cutoff date. Study authors were invited to share raw data or to apply a script to analyse data locally and generate anonymised results. Our outcome was ADHD status at a diagnostic reassessment, conducted at least 4 years after the initial assessment and after age 10 years. No information on sex, gender, or ethnicity was collected. We did a two-stage random-effects individual participant data meta-analysis to assess the association of relative age with persistence of ADHD at follow-up. This study was registered with PROSPERO, CRD42020212650. Findings Of 33119 studies generated by our search, we identified 130 eligible unique studies and were able to gather individual participant data from 57 prospective studies following up 6504 children with ADHD. After exclusion of 16 studies in regions with a flexible school entry system that did not allow confident linkage of birthdate to relative age, the primary analysis included 41 studies in 15 countries following up 4708 children for a period of 4 to 33 years. We found that younger relative age was not statistically significantly associated with ADHD persistence at follow-up (odds ratio 1·02, 95% CI 0·99–1·06; p=0·19). We observed statistically significant heterogeneity in our model (Q=75·82, p=0·0011, I²=45%). Participant-level sensitivity analyses showed similar results in cohorts with a robust relative age effect at baseline and when restricting to cohorts involving children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD or with a follow-up duration of more than 10 years. Interpretation. The diagnosis of ADHD in younger children in a class is no more likely to be disconfirmed over time than that of older children in the class. One interpretation is that the relative age effect decreases the likelihood of children of older relative age receiving a diagnosis of ADHD, and another is that assigning a diagnostic label of ADHD leads to unexplored carryover effects of the initial diagnosis that persist over time. Future studies should be conducted to explore these interpretations further. Funding None. Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license.

• Mohn-Haugen, Caroline Ranem; Møller, Paul; Mohn, Christine; Larøi, Frank; Teigset, Charlotte Margrethe & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Anomalous self-experiences and neurocognitive functioning in adolescents at risk for psychosis: Still no significant associations found between these two vulnerability markers. Comprehensive Psychiatry. ISSN 0010-440X. 125. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152400. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Anomalous self-experiences (ASEs) and neurocognitive impairments are considered essential domains of vulnerability for developing psychotic disorders. However, little research exists of possible associations between ASEs and neurocognitive functions in individuals at-risk for psychosis. The interconnections between ASEs and neurocognitive impairments should therefore be clarified as much as possible, especially in young individuals at risk. No previous studies have investigated these two fundamental domains in non-help-seeking adolescents at risk for developing psychosis. Methods This study is based on the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Adolescents (N = 48, 94% females, mean age = 15.3) were invited to participate after completing a 14-year-old survey distributed by MoBA. At-risk adolescents were selected based on the 0.4% highest scores on 19 items assessing both psychotic-like experiences and ASEs. Five specifically selected and formulated items measuring ASEs were computed to an ASEs total score. Neurocognitive functioning was assessed using the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery. Results Regression analyses revealed no significant relationships between ASEs and any neurocognitive domain. Conclusions We did not find any significant associations between ASEs and neurocognitive functions in non-help-seeking adolescents at risk for psychotic disorders, which is in line with reports from other types of cohorts. Thus, ASEs and neurocognitive functions may be understood as two relatively separate domains that co-exist in at-risk states. These results underline the need for a wider scope when making predictions about future trajectories, e.g. the development of psychotic disorders. Including both ASEs and neurocognitive functioning in at-risk populations may increase the specificity of vulnerability criteria in this population and enhance our understanding of early psychosis psychopathology.

• Flaaten, Camilla Bärthel; Melle, Ingrid; Bjella, Thomas; Engen, Magnus Johan; Åsbø, Gina & Wold, Kristin Fjelnseth [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2023). Long-term course of cognitive functioning in bipolar disorder: A ten-year follow-up study. Bipolar Disorders. ISSN 1398-5647. doi: 10.1111/bdi.13364. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Introduction Cognitive impairments are common in bipolar disorder (BD), but the long‐term course remains understudied. Longitudinal data on cognitive functioning from the start of the first treatment could help clarify pathophysiological processes that shape the illness outcome. We here aim to investigate the 10‐year cognitive course in BD compared to healthy controls (HC) and the effects of clinical symptoms on cognitive trajectories. Methods Fifty‐six BD participants recruited within their first year of treatment and 108 HC completed clinical and cognitive assessments at baseline and 10‐year follow‐up. We derived eight cognitive domain scores and a cognitive composite score, which were further investigated using linear mixed model analyses. Correlation analyses were used to assess associations between the composite score and depressive, manic and psychotic symptoms. Results BD participants performed poorer than HCs in all domains except mental speed and verbal fluency. Verbal learning and memory, verbal fluency and the composite score improved over time in both BD participants and HC, while short‐term memory, mental speed, psychomotor speed and working memory were stable. We found no significant correlations between cognition and symptom level at either time point in BD participants. Conclusions We found evidence of long‐term cognitive stability or improvement in BD participants from first treatment to 10‐year follow‐up. Though the BD group was impaired in all domains except mental speed and verbal fluency, the change in cognitive functioning was parallel to that of HCs. These findings are not consistent with the notion of neuroprogression in BD.

• Skogli, Erik Winther; Orm, Stian; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann & Øie, Merete Glenne (2022). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder persistence from childhood into young adult age: a 10-year longitudinal study. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. ISSN 1354-6805. 27(6), p. 447–457. doi: 10.1080/13546805.2022.2123735. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction The aim of this study was to estimate ADHD persistence in a European clinical sample of children diagnosed with ADHD and followed prospectively for 10 years into young adulthood. Methods We assessed 85 children with ADHD at baseline (Mage = 11.6, SD = 2.1, 54% male) and re-assessed 59 at 10-year follow-up (Mage = 21.4, SD = 2.3, 54% male). ADHD symptoms at baseline were assessed with a semi-structured clinical interview (Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia/Present and lifetime version) and parent rating scales (ADHD Rating Scale IV, Child Behavior Checklist). ADHD symptoms at 10-year follow-up were assessed with a semi-structured clinical interview (MINI-Plus) and self-report scales (ADHD Self-Report Scale version 1.1 screener, Adult Self Report). Functional impairment at 10-year follow-up was assessed with the Global Assessment of Functioning scale. Results At 10-year follow-up, 39% met ADHD symptom thresholds based on clinical evaluation using MINI-Plus or the ADHD Self-Report Scale version 1.1 screener or the Adult Self Report together with clinicians’ rating of functional impairment. Conclusion ADHD persistence rates in this European clinical sample match previous estimates and indicate that a significant proportion of those diagnosed with ADHD as children still exhibit clinical levels of ADHD symptoms in adulthood.

• Skogli, Erik Winther; Andersen, Per Normann; Orm, Stian; Hovik, Kjell Tore & Øie, Merete Glenne (2022). Executive Functioning in Everyday Life in Youth with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. ISSN 1034-912X. doi: 10.1080/1034912X.2022.2095360. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Problems with executive function (EF) are considered a hallmark of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). However, little is known about the developmental pathway of everyday EF in these two groups, and whether the two groups follow a similar or different developmental course. In this longitudinal study, children and adolescents with ADHD (n = 84, Mage = 11.6, SD = 2.0), ASD (n = 38, Mage = 12.0, SD = 2.3), and typically developing children (TDC; n = 50, Mage = 11.6, SD = 2.0) were clinically diagnosed and assessed with parent-ratings of everyday EF at baseline and at two-year follow-up (97% retention). Results showed that both individuals with ADHD and individuals with ASD displayed elevated levels of everyday EF problems relative to the TDC at baseline (Hedges g = 1.99 to 2.99). Over the two-year period, everyday EF improved in individuals with ADHD relative to the TDC, whereas individuals with ASD displayed no improvement relative to the TDC. At two-year follow-up, individuals with ADHD and individuals with ASD continued to display elevated levels of everyday EF problems relative to the TDC (Hedges g = 1.61 to 3.19).

• Mohn-Haugen, Caroline Ranem; Mohn, Christine; Larøi, Frank; Teigset, Charlotte; Øie, Merete Glenne & Rund, Bjørn Rishovd (2022). A systematic review of premorbid cognitive functioning and its timing of onset in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 28, p. 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2022.100246. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cognitive impairments are core features of established schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). However, it remains unclear whether specific cognitive functions are differentially impaired pre-onset and at what age these impairments can be detected. The purpose of this review was to elucidate these issues through a systematic summary of results from longitudinal studies investigating impairment in specific cognitive domains as antecedents of SSD. Relevant studies were identified by electronic and manual literature searches and included any original study of cognitive domains any time pre-onset of SSDs that included a control group. Effect sizes were calculated by domain for studies comparing high-risk participants who developed SSD with those who did not. The strongest evidence for impairment pre-onset was for mental processing speed, verbal learning and memory, executive function, and social cognition. Some verbal impairments, like language abilities at age 3 and verbal learning and memory at age 7, may develop as static deficits. Conversely, some non-verbal impairments, like mental processing speed, visuospatial abilities, and visual working memory manifest as developmental lag and become significant later in life. Most effect sizes were small to moderate, except for verbal fluency (d′ = 0,85), implying this impairment as central in high-risk participants who develop SSD. The present review documents extensive cognitive impairments pre-onset of SSD, and that these impairments start early in life, in line with the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. Increased knowledge about cognitive impairments preonset can provide a better basis for understanding the complex pathogenesis of SSD as well as informing cognitive remediation programs.

• Haugen, Ingvild; Ueland, Torill; Stubberud, Jan Egil; Brunborg, Cathrine; Wykes, Til & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). Moderators of metacognitive strategy training for executive functioning in early schizophrenia and psychosis risk. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 31. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2022.100275. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Goal Management Training (GMT) improved self-reported executive functioning in a recent randomized, controlled trial in early intervention for psychosis participants. Little is known about the mechanism for this benefit, so this study investigates objectively measured executive function, the difference between subjective and objective executive function, independent living and employment status as potential moderators of efficacy of GMT. Baseline scores from 81 participants (GMT n = 39 vs Treatment-as-usual; TAU n = 42) were analyzed in a linear mixed model analysis for repeated measures as predictors of improvement on the self-reported Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function–Adult version (BRIEF-A) immediately and 30 weeks after GMT. Potential moderators were scores from objective measures of executive functioning, discrepancy between subjective and objective measures, independent living and employment status. Discrepancy was assessed by comparing four clusters of participants with differing patterns of scores. The effect of GMT remained significant regardless of initial objective executive functioning at baseline. Those with higher subjective complaints at baseline in two clusters with (i) both objective and subjective executive dysfunction, and (ii) mostly subjective executive dysfunction experienced greater change after treatment. Living arrangements or participation in education or work did not significantly moderate the effects of GMT. Poor performance on neuropsychological tasks is not an obstacle to making use of GMT, but further knowledge is needed about the benefits of strategy training for individuals with a combination of poor performance with few subjective complaints.

• Orm, Stian; Andersen, Per Normann; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2022). Brief report: Autism spectrum disorder diagnostic persistence in a 10-year longitudinal study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. ISSN 1750-9467. 97(102007). doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102007. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: The aim was to examine diagnostic persistence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in individuals without intellectual disability from childhood to emerging adulthood. Method: We assessed 38 children with estimated full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ) >70 who were diagnosed with ASD at baseline (Mage=12.0, SD=2.3, 84% male), and re-assessed two (n=37, Mage=14.2, SD=2.4, 84% male) and 10 years (n=23, Mage=21.7, SD=2.4, 78% male) later. Results: At two-year follow-up, all participants still met diagnostic criteria for ASD according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders – fourth version (DSM-IV). At 10-year follow-up, 65% met diagnostic criteria for ASD according to DSM-IV, 48% met diagnostic criteria according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders – fifth version (DSM-5), 57% met the ASD cut-off on the Autism Spectrum Quotient 10-item (AQ-10), and 78% met either DSM-IV criteria or cut-off on the AQ-10. Higher IQ in childhood predicted loss of ASD diagnosis according to DSM-IV criteria (Hedges g = 1.30). A higher proportion of girls compared to boys displayed loss of ASD diagnosis according to DSM-IV criteria. Conclusions: These findings suggest that ASD traits among individuals without intellectual disability may wane into emerging adulthood and that loss of ASD diagnosis is associated with higher IQ and being a girl. Diagnostic re-evaluations may be warranted for some individuals diagnosed with ASD as children or adolescents.

• Flaaten, Camilla Bärthel; Melle, Ingrid; Bjella, Thomas; Engen, Magnus Johan; Åsbø, Gina & Wold, Kristin Fjelnseth [Show all 14 contributors for this article] (2022). Domain-specific cognitive course in schizophrenia: Group- and individual-level changes over 10 years. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 30, p. 1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2022.100263. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cognitive impairments in schizophrenia are well-documented, present across several cognitive domains and found to be relatively stable over time. However, there is a high degree of heterogeneity and indications of domain-specific developmental courses. The present study investigated the 10-year cognitive course in participants with first-episode schizophrenia (FES) and healthy controls on eight cognitive domains and a composite score, looking at group- and individual-level changes. A total of 75 FES participants and 91 healthy controls underwent cognitive assessment at baseline and follow-up. Linear mixed models were used for group-level analyses and reliable change index (RCI) analyses were used to investigate individual change. The prevalence of clinically significant impairment was explored at both time points, using a cut-off of < −1.5 SD, with significant cognitive impairment defined as impairment on ≥2 domains. Group-level analyses found main effects of group and time, and time by group interactions. Memory, psychomotor processing speed and verbal fluency improved, while learning, mental processing speed and working memory were stable in both groups. FES participants showed deteriorations in attention and cognitive control. Individual-level analyses mainly indicated stability in both FES and controls, except for a higher prevalence of decline in cognitive control in FES. At baseline, 68.8 % of FES participants had clinically significant impairment, compared to 62.3 % at follow-up. We mainly found long-term stability and modest increases in cognition over time in FES, as well as a high degree of within-group heterogeneity. We also found indications of deterioration in participants with worse cognitive performance at baseline.

• Orm, Stian; Pollak, Yehuda; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2022). Decision-making and Risky Behavior in Individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A 10-year Longitudinal Study. Developmental Neuropsychology. ISSN 8756-5641. 47(4), p. 193–209. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2022.2082430. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We assessed 85 children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and 50 typically developing children (TD) (Mage = 11.59, 57.8% boys) with the Hungry Donkey Task (HDT) at baseline and 2-year follow-up, and the Iowa Gambling Task at 10-year follow-up (75% retention). Improvement in the proportion of advantageous choices was observed from two- to 10-year follow-up, but the ADHD group improved less and was outperformed by the TD group at the 10-year follow-up. More advantageous choices on the HDT at baseline predicted less risky behavior at 10-year follow-up. Male sex and more inattentive or externalizing symptoms at baseline predicted more risky behavior.

• Øverland, Elisabeth; Hauge, Åshild Lappegard; Orm, Stian; Pellicano, Elisabeth; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). Exploring life with autism: Quality of Life, daily functioning and compensatory strategies from childhood to emerging adulthood: A qualitative study protocol. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1058601. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction: This study aims to investigate self-perceived quality of life, daily functioning, and the use of compensatory strategies in emerging adults with autism. Methods and analysis: Participants will be recruited from the Lillehammer Neurodevelopmental 10-year follow-up study (LINEUP), with the aim of 15 individual in-depth interviews. Subsequently, two focus groups with clinicians will be invited to reflect on the themes found in the individual interviews. All interviews will be recorded and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Ethics and dissemination: The study is approved by the Regional Committee for Medical Research Ethics in South-East Norway. The findings will be disseminated to academic and clinical audiences through journal articles and conference presentations. To reach the broader autistic and autism communities, the findings will be shared with the Autism Society at national and local meetings, in their membership magazine, and on their social media channel.

• Torske, Tonje; Nærland, Terje; Quintana, Daniel; Hypher, Ruth Elizabeth; Kaale, Anett & Høyland, Anne Lise [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2022). Sex as a Moderator Between Parent Ratings of Executive Dysfunction and Social Difficulties in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. ISSN 0162-3257. doi: 10.1007/s10803-022-05629-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Girls and boys might differ in autistic symptoms and associated cognitive difficulties such as executive function (EF). We investigated sex differences in the relationship between parent rated EF and autistic symptoms in 116 children and adolescents (25 girls) aged 5-19 years with an intelligence quotient above 70 and an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis. They were rated with the behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF) and the autism diagnostic interview revised (ADI-R). We found a positive association between EF and the ADI-R domains of reciprocal social interaction (p < 0.001) and communication (p = 0.001) in girls, while these relationships were small and non-significant in boys. Our results provide a greater understanding of the sex-specific characteristics of children and adolescents with ASD. Keywords: Autism diagnostic interview revised (ADI-R); Autism spectrum disorder; Behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF); Executive function; Sex differences. © 2022. The Author(s).

• Orm, Stian; Andersen, Per Normann; Teicher, Martin H.; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2022). Childhood executive functions and ADHD symptoms predict psychopathology symptoms in emerging adults with and without ADHD: A 10-year longitudinal study. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. ISSN 2730-7166. 51. doi: 10.1007/s10802-022-00957-7. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Deficits in executive functions (EFs) are theorized to play an important role in causing functional impairment and associated psychopathology in individuals with ADHD. The objective of this study was to examine the role of EFs and ADHD symptoms as longitudinal predictors of psychopathology symptoms in individuals with ADHD and typically developing individuals. We assessed individuals with and without ADHD (N = 135) with neuropsychological tests of EFs and scales of ADHD symptoms and psychopathology symptoms at baseline (T1; Mage = 11.59, 57.8% boys), 2-year follow-up (T2; Mage = 13.63, 97% retention), and 10-year follow-up (Mage = 21.18, 75% retention). Baseline EFs predicted psychopathology symptoms at the 2- and the 10-year follow-up, explaining 17% and 12% of the variance, respectively. Baseline EFs predicted both internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and the predictive value of EFs on psychopathology symptoms at 10-year follow-up was accounted for by cognitive flexibility. Baseline ADHD symptoms were a significant predictor of all symptom domains at all time points. Thus, childhood EFs, in particular cognitive flexibility, can predict psychopathology symptoms in emerging adulthood beyond the effect of ADHD symptoms. This supports dominating theories of ADHD stating that executive dysfunction contributes to the observed phenotype, including associated psychopathology symptoms, and suggests that EFs are important targets of interventional efforts.

• Gravråkmo, Sissel; Olsen, Alexander; Lydersen, Stian; Ingul, Jo Magne; Henry, Lucy & Øie, Merete Glenne (2022). Associations between executive functions, intelligence and adaptive behaviour in children and adolescents with mild intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities. ISSN 1744-6295. 27(3), p. 715–727. doi: 10.1177/17446295221095951. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: The purpose of this study was to explore the role of everyday executive functions in relation to intelligence and adaptive behaviour in children and adolescents with mild intellectual disability. Method: A group of children and adolescents, previously diagnosed with mild intellectual disability were assessed according to intelligence, everyday executive functions and adaptive behaviour. The association between everyday executive functions and intelligence was examined, and it was explored whether intelligence or everyday executive functions would best predict adaptive behaviour. Results: Adaptive behaviour was significantly predicted by executive functions, but not by intelligence. Nor was intelligence significantly related to everyday executive functions in this group. Conclusions: Although fundamental in diagnosing intellectual disability, intelligence cannot predict adaptive behaviour. Assessing everyday executive functions and adaptive behaviour, as well as acknowledging the strong association between them, provides valuable information in the process of optimizing developmental support for children and adolescents with mild intellectual disability.

• Mohn-Haugen, Caroline Ranem; Mohn, Hanne Christine; Larøi, Frank; Teigset, Charlotte; Øie, Merete Glenne & Rund, Bjørn Rishovd (2022). Cognitive functioning in a group of adolescents at risk for psychosis. Frontiers in Psychiatry. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1075222. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cognitive deficits are a core feature of schizophrenia, and impairments are present in groups at-risk for psychosis. Most at-risk studies include young adults and not younger age-groups, such as adolescents. Participants are usually help-seeking individuals, even though risk factors may also be present in non-help seeking adolescents. We aim to explore cognitive functions in a group of non-help-seeking 15-year-old adolescents at risk for psychosis compared to age- and gender matched controls, including particular focus on specific cognitive domains. Hundred participants (mean age = 15.3) were invited after completing the 14-year-old survey distributed by the Norwegian Mother-, Father- and Child Study. At-risk adolescents were selected based on high scores on 19 items assessing both psychotic experiences and anomalous self-experiences. Matched controls were selected from the same sample. Cognitive functioning was assessed using the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery and IQ using Wechsler’s Abbreviated Test of Intelligence. We found that the adolescents at-risk for psychosis had significantly poorer scores than controls on the composite score of the MCCB. IQ scores were also significantly lower in the at-risk group. The results highlight general cognitive deficits as central in a group of non-help-seeking adolescents at-risk for psychosis. Results indicate that the development of cognitive impairments starts early in life in at-risk groups. It is still unclear whether specific cognitive domains, such as verbal learning, are related to psychotic symptoms or may be specifically vulnerable to symptoms of depression and anxiety.

• Haugen, Ingvild; Stubberud, Jan Egil; Haug, Elisabeth; McGurk, Susan R.; Hovik, Kjell Tore & Ueland, Torill [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). A randomized controlled trial of Goal Management Training for executive functioning in schizophrenia spectrum disorders or psychosis risk syndromes. BMC Psychiatry. 22(1). doi: 10.1186/s12888-022-04197-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Executive functioning is essential to daily life and severely impaired in schizophrenia and psychosis risk syndromes. Goal Management Training (GMT) is a theoretically founded, empirically supported, metacognitive strategy training program designed to improve executive functioning. Methods A randomized controlled parallel group trial compared GMT with treatment as usual among 81 participants (GMT, n = 39 versus Wait List Controls, n = 42) recruited from an early intervention for psychosis setting. Computer generated random allocation was performed by someone independent from the study team and raters post-intervention were unaware of allocation. The primary objective was to assess the impact of GMT administered in small groups for 5 weeks on executive functioning. The secondary objective was to explore the potential of the intervention in influencing daily life functioning and clinical symptoms. Results GMT improved self-reported executive functioning, measured with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Adult version (BRIEF-A), significantly more than treatment as usual. A linear mixed model for repeated measures, including all partial data according to the principle of intention to treat, showed a significant group x time interaction effect assessed immediately after intervention (post-test) and 6 months after intervention (follow-up), F = 8.40, p .005, r .37. Improvement occurred in both groups in objective executive functioning as measured by neuropsychological tests, functional capacity, daily life functioning and symptoms of psychosis rated by clinicians. Self-reported clinical symptoms measured with the Symptoms Check List (SCL-10) improved significantly more after GMT than after treatment as usual, F = 5.78, p .019, r .29. Two participants withdrew due to strenuous testing and one due to adverse effects. Conclusions GMT had clinically reliable and lasting effects on subjective executive function. The intervention is a valuable addition to available treatment with considerable gains at low cost. Trial registration Registered at clinicaltrials.gov NCT03048695 09/02/2017.

• Øie, Merete Glenne; Buer, Sofie; Bølgen, Maria Sletten; Pedersen, Maria; Asprusten, Tarjei Tørre & Wyller, Vegard Bruun Bratholm (2022). Subjective and objective cognitive function in adolescent with chronic fatigue following Epstein-Barr virus infection. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. ISSN 0022-3999. 163, p. 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.111063. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective Cognitive difficulties are among the most disruptive and disabling problems reported by chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) sufferers. Acute Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a trigger of chronic fatigue (CF) and CFS. The aim of this study was to investigate subjectively reported and objectively measured cognitive functioning in fatigued and non-fatigued adolescents six months after EBV infection. Methods A total of 195 adolescents (12–19 years) with acute EBV infection were followed prospectively for six months, after which they were grouped as chronically fatigued (CF+) and non-fatigued (CF−) cases based on questionnaire score; the CF+-group was further subgrouped according to CFS diagnosis. A group of 70 healthy controls was also included. Groups were cross-sectionally compared on objective measures of processing speed, executive functions and memory, and subjective cognitive functioning. Results There were no group differences regarding objective cognitive measures, but the CF+-group reported significantly (p < 0.001) more cognitive problems (cognitive symptoms sum score = 9.5) compared to the CF−-group (cognitive symptoms sum score = 5.3) and the healthy control group (cognitive symptoms sum score = 6.4). The CFS subgroup rated symptoms scores even higher but did not differ on cognitive performance tests. Conclusion Subjective experiences of cognitive difficulties characterize adolescents with CF and CFS six months after acute EBV infection, whereas objective measures of cognitive impairment are inconspicuous.

• Skogheim, Thea Steen; Weyde, Kjell Vegard Fjeldheim; Engel, Stephanie M.; Aase, Heidi; Suren, Pål & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2021). Metal and essential element concentrations during pregnancy and associations with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Environment International. ISSN 0160-4120. 152, p. 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106468. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Prenatal exposure to toxic metals or variations in maternal levels of essential elements during pregnancy may be a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring. Objectives We investigated whether maternal levels of toxic metals and essential elements measured in mid-pregnancy, individually and as mixtures, were associated with childhood diagnosis of ADHD or ASD. Methods This study is based on the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study and included 705 ADHD cases, 397 ASD cases and 1034 controls. Cases were identified through linkage with the Norwegian Patient Registry. Maternal concentrations of 11 metals/elements were measured in blood at week 17 of gestation; cadmium; cesium; cobalt; copper; lead; magnesium; manganese; selenium; zinc; total arsenic; and total mercury. Multivariable adjusted logistic regression models were used to examine associations between quartile levels of individual metals/elements and outcomes. We also investigated non-linear associations using restricted cubic spline models. The joint effects of the metal/element mixture on ASD and ADHD diagnoses were estimated using a quantile-based g-computation approach. Results For ASD, we identified positive associations (increased risks) in the second quartile of arsenic [OR = 1.77 (CI: 1.26, 2.49)] and the fourth quartiles of cadmium and manganese [OR = 1.57 (CI: 1.07 2.31); OR = 1.84 (CI: 1.30, 2.59)], respectively. In addition, there were negative associations between cesium, copper, mercury, and zinc and ASD. For ADHD, we found increased risk in the fourth quartiles of cadmium and magnesium [OR = 1.59 (CI: 1.15, 2.18); [OR = 1.42 (CI: 1.06, 1.91)]. There were also some negative associations, among others with mercury. In addition, we identified non-linear associations between ASD and arsenic, mercury, magnesium, and lead, and between ADHD and arsenic, copper, manganese, and mercury. There were no significant findings in the mixture approach analyses. Conclusion Results from the present study show several associations between levels of metals and elements during gestation and ASD and ADHD in children. The most notable ones involved arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, manganese, magnesium, and lead. Our results suggest that even population levels of these compounds may have negative impacts on neurodevelopment. As we observed mainly similarities among the metals’ and elements’ impact on ASD and ADHD, it could be that the two disorders share some neurochemical and neurodevelopmental pathways. The results warrant further investigation and replication, as well as studies of combined effects of metals/elements and mechanistic underpinnings.

• Skogheim, Thea Steen; Weyde, Kjell Vegard Fjeldheim; Aase, Heidi; Engel, Stephanie M.; Suren, Pål & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2021). Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and associations with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in children. Environmental Research. ISSN 0013-9351. 202(111692). doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111692. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) may be a risk factor for neurodevelopmental deficits and disorders, but evidence is inconsistent. Objectives We investigated whether prenatal exposure to PFAS were associated with childhood diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods This study was based on the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study and included n = 821 ADHD cases, n = 400 ASD cases and n = 980 controls. Diagnostic cases were identified by linkage with the Norwegian Patient Registry. In addition, we used data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway. The study included the following PFAS measured in maternal plasma sampled mid-pregnancy: Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), perfluoroheptanesulfonic acid (PFHpS), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). Relationships between individual PFAS and ADHD or ASD diagnoses were examined using multivariable adjusted logistic regression models. We also tested for possible non-linear exposure-outcome associations. Further, we investigated the PFAS mixture associations with ASD and ADHD diagnoses using a quantile-based g-computation approach. Results Odds of ASD was significantly elevated in PFOA quartile 2 [OR = 1.71 (95% CI: 1.20, 2.45)] compared to quartile 1, and PFOA appeared to have a non-linear, inverted U-shaped dose-response relationship with ASD. PFOA was also associated with increased odds of ADHD, mainly in quartile 2 [OR = 1.54 (95% CI: 1.16, 2.04)] compared to quartile 1, and displayed a non-linear relationship in the restricted cubic spline model. Several PFAS (PFUnDA, PFDA, and PFOS) were inversely associated with odds of ADHD and/or ASD. Some of the associations were modified by child sex and maternal education. The overall PFAS mixture was inversely associated with ASD [OR = 0.76 (95% CI: 0.64, 0.90)] as well as the carboxylate mixture [OR = 0.79 (95% CI: 0.68, 0.93)] and the sulfonate mixture [OR = 0.84 (95% CI: 0.73, 0.96)]. Conclusion Prenatal exposure to PFOA was associated with increased risk of ASD and ADHD in children. For some PFAS, as well as their mixtures, there were inverse associations with ASD and/or ADHD. However, the inverse associations reported herein should not be interpreted as protective effects, but rather that there could be some unresolved confounding for these relationships. The epidemiologic literature linking PFAS exposures with neurodevelopmental outcomes is still inconclusive, suggesting the need for more research to elucidate the neurotoxicological potential of PFAS during early development.

• Haugen, Ingvild; Stubberud, Jan; Ueland, Torill; Haug, Elisabeth & Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Executive dysfunction in schizophrenia: Predictors of the discrepancy between subjective and objective measures. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 26. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2021.100201. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study aimed to investigate what characterizes individuals with schizophrenia who experience more or less subjective executive dysfunction in everyday life compared to objective executive performance on neuropsychological tests. Sixty-six participants with broad schizophrenia spectrum disorders completed a comprehensive assessment of executive function. Discrepancies between performance on neuropsychological tests (objective) and an extensive self-report questionnaire (subjective) of central executive functions (inhibition, shifting and working memory) were calculated. Higher level of self-efficacy was the best predictor of experiencing fewer subjective cognitive complaints compared to objective performance, followed by higher levels of disorganized symptoms. Depressive symptoms did not predict discrepancy between subjective and objective executive function. Higher estimated IQ predicted greater subjective working memory difficulties in everyday life despite better objective performance. Results may aid clinicians in the assessment and remediation of cognitive impairment. Low self-efficacy may identify individuals who are not able to utilize their potential executive functions in daily life. Interventions aimed at fostering self-efficacy ought to be included in cognitive remediation for these individuals. Disorganized symptoms could prove useful in identifying individuals who are in need of cognitive remediation for executive dysfunction, despite that they overestimate their skills. These individuals may benefit from efforts to increase insight into cognitive dysfunction. Keywords: Cognition; Cognitive impairment; Executive function; Psychosis; Schizophrenia; Self-efficacy; Subjective assessment. © 2021 The Authors.

• Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2021). Development of Executive Functioning From Childhood to Young Adulthood in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study. Neuropsychology. ISSN 0894-4105. 35(8), p. 809–821. doi: 10.1037/neu0000768. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: This 10-year longitudinal study investigated the developmental trajectories of executive functioning (EF) in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), compared to typically developing (TD) individuals from childhood into young adulthood. Method: There were 173 participants at baseline (T1; ASD = 38 (eight with co-occurring ADHD), ADHD = 85, TD = 50; Mage = 11.7 years, SD = 2.1), 168 at 2-year follow-up (T2) and 127 at 10-year follow-up (T3). Participants were assessed with three neuropsychological tests aimed at capturing central components of EF: working memory/Letter-Number Sequencing Test (LNS), inhibition/Color-Word Interference Test, Condition 3 (CWIT3), and flexibility/Trail Making Test, Condition 4 (TMT4). Test results were analyzed using linear mixed models (LMM). Results: At baseline, the TD participants outperformed the ASD and ADHD participants on all three tests. From T1 to T2, the ASD participants had less improvement than the ADHD and TD participants on the LNS test (p = .007 and .025, respectively), while having more improvement on the CWIT3 relative to the TD participants (p = .027). From T2 to T3, the ADHD participants had less improvement on the LNS test than the ASD and TD participants (p = .004 and .021, respectively). Conclusions: The ASD and ADHD groups mainly displayed similar maturation on the neuropsychological measures, and displayed continuous impairment relative to the TD group. The need for support and facilitation of EF in school, workplace, and social arenas might continue into young adulthood among certain individuals with ASD and ADHD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

• Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann & Skogli, Erik Winther (2021). Declining Trajectories of Co-occurring Psychopathology Symptoms in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12, p. 1–14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.724759. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: Our objective was to examine developmental trajectories of co-occurring psychopathology symptoms from childhood to young adulthood in individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and typically developing (TD) individuals. Method: We assessed co-occurring psychopathology symptoms in 61 individuals with ADHD, 26 with ASD, and 40 TD individuals at baseline (T1; Mage = 11.72, 64% boys), 2-year follow up (T2; Mage = 13.77), and 10-year follow up (T3; Mage = 21.35). We analyzed trajectories of internalizing behaviors, externalizing behaviors, and total problems with linear mixed models. Results: From T1 to T3, the ADHD group displayed a small decline in internalizing behaviors (d = −0.49) and large declines in externalizing behaviors (d = −0.78) and total problems (d = −0.71). The ASD group displayed large declines in internalizing behaviors (d = −0.79), externalizing behaviors (d = −0.80), and total problems (d = −0.89). From T1 to T2, the decline in externalizing behaviors and total problems were significantly smaller in the ADHD group compared with the ASD group. The ADHD and the ASD group displayed more co-occurring symptoms compared with the TD group at T3. Conclusion: Individuals with ADHD and ASD, respectively, displayed declines in co-occurring symptoms from childhood to young adulthood. Individuals with ASD displayed an earlier decline compared with individuals with ADHD. Compared with TD individuals, individuals with ADHD and ASD, respectively, continued to display elevated levels of co-occurring symptoms in young adulthood.

• Øie, Merete Glenne; Sundet, Kjetil Søren; Haug, Elisabeth; Zeiner, Pål; Klungsøyr, Ole & Rund, Bjørn Rishovd (2021). Cognitive Performance in Early-Onset Schizophrenia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A 25-Year Follow-up Study. Frontiers in Psychology. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.606365. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Early-Onset Schizophrenia (EOS) and Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are early- onset neurodevelopmental disorders associated with cognitive deficits. The current study represents the first attempt to compare these groups on a comprehensive cognitive test battery in a longitudinal design over 25 years in order to enhance our knowledge of particular patterns resulting from the interaction between normal maturational processes and different illness processes of these disorders. In the baseline study, 19 adolescents with schizophrenia were compared to 20 adolescents with ADHD and 30 healthy controls (HC), all between 12 and 18 years of age. After 13 years (T2) and after 25 years (T3) they were re-evaluated with the cognitive test battery. A cognitive Composite Score was used in a linear mixed model. The EOS group had a significant cognitive stagnation or deterioration from T1 to T2 compared to HC. However, the EOS group had the most positive change from T2 to T3, supporting a stable level of cognitive performance over the 25 year span. The ADHD group improved or had similar development as the HC group from T1 to T2. They continued to improve significantly compared to the HC group from T2 to T3. Individuals in the EOS group performed more impaired on the cognitive composite score compared to the HC group and the ADHD group at all three time points. Results might indicate a neurodevelopmental pathway of EOS with subnormal cognitive development specific in adolescence. In comparison, the ADHD group had a more consistent cognitive maturation supporting a maturational delay hypothesis of ADHD.

• Øie, Merete Glenne; Aarnes, Ingebjørg Emilie; Eilertsen, Lise Horndalsveen; Söderström, Kerstin; Ystrøm, Eivind & Håkansson, UIrika (2020). High levels of the openness trait are associated with better parental reflective functioning in mothers with substance use disorders. Addictive Behaviors Reports. ISSN 2352-8532. 12. doi: 10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100318. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Aims: Mothers with substance use disorders (SUD) often show impairments in parental reflective functioning (PRF), which may have adverse effects on their capacity for sensitive caregiving. Parenting personality is also associated with caregiving. However, no studies have investigated how these individual factors may contribute to variance in PRF in mothers with SUD. In this study PRF and personality were assessed in 43 mothers with SUD. Methods: PRF was assessed by the Parent Development Interview. Personality traits were assessed by the Revised Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory. Results: The results indicate that higher levels of the Openness trait are associated with better PRF. Conclusion Mothers low in Openness may need more specific and situational training in interpreting mental states in their children. Highly open mothers with SUD will likely need more help distinguishing the child’s mental states from their own, and might need help to maintain mutuality and regulating the intensity of their responses to the child’s behavior.

• Svendsen, Ingrid Hartveit; Øie, Merete Glenne; Møller, Paul; Nelson, Barnaby; Melle, Ingrid & Haug, Elisabeth (2020). Basic self-disturbances are associated with Sense of Coherence in patients with psychotic disorders. PLOS ONE. 15(4), p. 1–11. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230956. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background The Sense of Coherence (SOC) theory gives a possible explanation of how people can experience subjective good health despite severe illness. Basic self-disturbances (BSDs) are subtle non-psychotic disturbances that may destabilize the person’s sense of self, identity, corporeality, and the overall ‘grip’ of the world. Aim Our objective was to investigate associations between BSDs and SOC in patients with psychotic disorders. Design This is a cross-sectional study of 56 patients diagnosed with psychotic disorders inside and outside the schizophrenia spectrum (35 schizophrenia, 13 bipolar, and eight other psychoses). SOC was measured using Antonovsky’s 13-item SOC questionnaire, and BSDs were assessed using the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) manual. Diagnosis, symptoms, and social and occupational performance were assessed using standardized clinical instruments. Results We found a statistically significant correlation (r = ) between high levels of BSDs and low levels of SOC (r = -0.64/p<0.001). This association was not influenced by diagnostics, clinical symptoms or level of functioning in follow-up multivariate analyses. Conclusion A statistically significant association between BSDs and SOC indicates that the presence and level of self-disturbances may influence the person's ability to experience life as comprehensive, manageable and meaningful. However, the cross-sectional nature of the study precludes conclusions regarding the direction of this association.

• Øie, Merete Glenne; Andersen, Per Normann; Hovik, Kjell Tore; Skogli, Erik Winther & Rund, Bjørn Rishovd (2020). Similar impairments shown on a neuropsychological test battery in adolescents with high-functioning autism and early onset schizophrenia: A two-year follow-up study. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. ISSN 1354-6805. 25(3), p. 163–178. doi: 10.1080/13546805.2020.1713736. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction: Cognitive impairments are common in both Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and schizophrenia, but it is unclear whether the pattern of difficulties is similar or different in the two disorders. This cross-sectional and longitudinal study compared the neuropsychological functioning in adolescents with ASD with adolescents with Early Onset Schizophrenia (EOS). Methods: At baseline and at two-year follow-up, participants were assessed with a brief neuropsychological test battery measuring executive functions, visual and verbal learning, delayed recall and recognition and psychomotor speed. Results: We found similar levels of neuropsychological impairment across groups and over time in the adolescents with ASD or EOS. Adolescents in both groups did not improve significantly on verbal learning, verbal delayed recall, visual learning, visual delayed recall or visual delayed recognition, and both groups performed poorer on verbal recognition. Both groups improved on measures of psychomotor processing and executive functions. Conclusion: The findings suggest that it may be difficult to differentiate adolescents with EOS and ASD based on neuropsychological task performance. An implication of the results is that adolescents with either disorder may benefit from a similar approach to the treatment of cognitive impairment in the disorders.

• Svendsen, Ingrid Hartveit; Øie, Merete Glenne; Møller, Paul; Nelson, Barnaby; Haug, Elisabeth & Melle, Ingrid (2019). Basic Self-Disturbances Independently Predict Recovery in Psychotic Disorders: A Seven Year Follow-up Study. Schizophrenia Research. ISSN 0920-9964. 212, p. 72–78. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.08.009. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Recovery is the ultimate goal of psychosis treatment . Basic self-disturbances (BSDs) are non-psychotic phenomena associated with clinical outcome, present in prodromal, psychotic and residual phases of psychotic disorders. Aim To investigate the relationship between BSDs and recovery seven years after first treatment in patients with psychotic disorders. Method Prospective longitudinal study of 56 patients recruited during first adequate treatment for schizophrenia (n = 35) and other psychotic disorders (n = 21) (psychotic bipolar disorder, delusional disorder, psychotic disorder NOS). At baseline and follow-up BSDs were assessed using the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) manual, while standard clinical instruments were used to ascertained diagnosis, clinical symptom severity, and functioning. Recovery was defined as absence of psychotic symptoms and regaining of functioning that persisted the last two years before follow-up. Results At follow up, 34% achieved recovery (5 (14%) with schizophrenia and 14 (67%) with other psychoses at baseline). Recovery was predicted by an absence of a schizophrenia diagnosis, low baseline level of BSDs and further reductions in BSDs from baseline to follow-up. Change in BSDs was the strongest predictor, also after adjusting for premorbid adjustment and duration of untreated psychosis, and was not confounded by diagnosis. Conclusion Low baseline levels of basic self-disturbances and further reductions over time independently predict recovery seven years later in first treated psychosis patients.

• Håkansson, UIrika; Watten, Reidulf G.; Söderström, Kerstin & Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). The association between executive functioning and parental stress and psychological distress is mediated by parental reflective functioning in mothers with substance use disorder. Stress and Health. ISSN 1532-3005. 35(4), p. 407–420. doi: 10.1002/smi.2868. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Mothers with a substance use disorder (SUD) have been found to exhibit heightened experience of stress and deficits in executive functioning (EF) and in parental reflective functioning (PRF). Although experiences of stress, EF and PRF are important for caregiving capacities; no studies have explored associations between the phenomena in mothers with SUD. This study aimed to examine the association between EF (working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility) and different forms of stress (parental stress, general life stress, and psychological distress) in 43 mothers with SUD with infants. We further aimed to investigate whether PRF had a mediating function between EF and the experience of stress. The mothers completed self‐ report questionnaires regarding experiences of different types of stress, and we also used neuropsychological tests to assess EF and a semistructured interview to assess PRF. Results identified problems in EF were associated with higher parental stress and psychological distress but not with general life stress. Cognitive flexibility contributed uniquely to variance in parental stress, whereas working memory was a unique contributor to variance in psychological distress. PRF had a mediating function between EF and parental stress and between EF and psychological distress. Findings highlight the importance of considering individual differences in PRF when targeting EF in interventions trying to reduce the experience of parental stress and psychological distress in mothers with SUD.

• Pedersen, Maria; Asprusten, Tarjei Tørre; Godang, Kristin; Leegaard, Truls Michael; Osnes, Liv T. N. & Skovlund, Eva [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2019). Lifestyle factors during acute Epstein-Barr virus infection in adolescents predict physical activity six months later. Acta Paediatrica. ISSN 0803-5253. 108(8), p. 1521–1526. doi: 10.1111/apa.14728. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Aim: Acute Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a trigger of prolonged fatigue. This study investigated baseline predictors of physical activity six months after an acute EBV infection. Methods: A total of 200 adolescents (12-20 years old) with acute EBV infection were assessed for 149 possible baseline predictors and followed prospectively. In this exploratory study, we performed linear regression analysis to assess possible associations between baseline predictors and steps per day at six months. Results: In the final multiple linear regression model, physical activity six months after acute EBV infection was significantly and independently predicted by baseline physical activity (steps per day), substance use (alcohol and illicit drugs) and human growth hormone (adjusted R2 = 0.20). Conclusion: Baseline physical activity, substance use and plasma growth hormone are independent predictors of physical activity six months after an acute EBV infection in adolescents, whereas markers of the infection and associated immune response do not seem to be associated with physical activity six months later.

• Torske, Tonje; Nærland, Terje; Bettella, Francesco; Bjella, Thomas; Malt, Eva Albertsen & Høyland, Anne Lise [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2019). Autism spectrum disorder polygenic scores are associated with every day executive function in children admitted for clinical assessment. Autism Research. ISSN 1939-3792. 13(2). doi: 10.1002/aur.2207. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs) are behaviorally defined disorders with overlapping clinical features that are often associated with higher-order cognitive dysfunction, particularly executive dysfunction. Our aim was to determine if the polygenic score (PGS) for ASD is associated with parent-reported executive dysfunction in everyday life using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). Furthermore, we investigated if PGS for general intelligence (INT) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) also correlate with BRIEF. We included 176 children, adolescents and young adults aged 5–22 years with full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ) above 70. All were admitted for clinical assessment of ASD symptoms and 68% obtained an ASD diagnosis. We found a significant difference between low and high ASD PGS groups in the BRIEF behavior regulation index (BRI) (P = 0.015, Cohen’s d = 0.69). A linear regression model accounting for age, sex, full-scale IQ, Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) total score, ASD, ADHD and INT PGS groups as well as genetic principal components, significantly predicted the BRI score; F(11,130) = 8.142, P < 0.001, R2 = 0.41 (unadjusted). Only SRS total (P < 0.001), ASD PGS 0.1 group (P = 0.018), and sex (P = 0.022) made a significant contribution to the model. This suggests that the common ASD risk gene variants have a stronger association to behavioral regulation aspects of executive dysfunction than ADHD risk or INT variants in a clinical sample with ASD symptoms. Autism Res 2019, 00: 1–14. © 2019 The Authors. Autism Research published by International Society for Autism Research published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lay Summary: People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have difficulties with higher-order cognitive processes that regulate thoughts and actions during goal-directed behavior, also known as executive function (EF). We studied the association between genetics related to ASD and EF and found a relation between high polygenic score (PGS) for ASD and difficulties with behavior regulation aspects of EF in children and adolescents under assessment for ASD. Furthermore, high PGS for general intelligence was related to social problems. Keywords: autism spectrum disorder; polygenic score; executive function; attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; behavior rating inventory of executive function

• Kristiansen, Vidar Roald; Handeland, Tore Bergby; Lau, Bjørn; Søderstrøm, Kerstin; Håkansson, UIrika & Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Trauma in childhood and adolescence and impaired executive functions are associated with uncertain reflective functioning in mothers with substance use disorder. Addictive Behaviors Reports. ISSN 2352-8532. 11. doi: 10.1016/j.abrep.2019.100245. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Aims: Impairments in reflective functioning are known to have adverse effects on the ability to display sensitive parenting as a caregiver. Several factors are associated with impairments in reflective functioning, such as impaired executive functioning and experienced trauma. We investigated how these factors contribute to an impaired reflective functioning style, such as pathological certain or uncertain reflective functioning. Extreme scores on these two subscales reflect two kinds of impairments in reflective functioning. We assessed executive functions, reflective functioning, and trauma in 43 mothers diagnosed with substance use disorders (SUD). Methods: Certain or uncertain reflective functioning were assessed using the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire 8 (RFQ-8). Executive functions and trauma were assessed by administering various questionnaires, interviews and neuropsychological tests. Results: High uncertain reflective functioning was more than six times as common (odds ratio) in mothers reporting high amounts of trauma in childhood and adolescence compared with mothers reporting low amounts of trauma. Impaired executive functions were also significantly associated with high uncertain reflective functioning. Certain reflective functioning did, however, not show any significant associations. Conclusion: When the SUD mothers give information about relational trauma in childhood and adolescence, it might therefore be worth investigating and addressing the potential tendency to have an uncertain reflective functioning style.

• Torgalsbøen, Bendik Rund; Zeiner, Pål & Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Pre-attention and working memory in ADHD: A 25-year follow-up study. Journal of Attention Disorders. ISSN 1087-0547. doi: 10.1177/1087054719879491. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: The aim of the study was to compare the development of working memory and preliminary stages of attentional processing in individuals with ADHD over a 23- to 25-year period. Method: Individuals with ADHD (n = 19) and healthy controls (n = 26) were followed up after 13 years (T2) and 23 to 25 years (T3) after initial assessment (T1). They were reassessed with diagnostic measures and the Backward masking task (pre-attention) and the Digit span distractibility test with and without distraction conditions (working memory). Results: The ADHD group performed below the healthy controls on all time points on the Digit span distractibility test. On the distractibility condition, we found a selective decline in performance from T2 to T3 for the ADHD group. Conclusion: The results highlight that ADHD individuals continue to display working memory deficits, also in adulthood, thus creating an imperative for cognitive rehabilitation techniques to help address attention difficulties. KEYWORDS: ADHD; longitudinal; neurodevelopment; pre-attention; working memory

• Skogheim, Thea Steen; Villanger, Gro Dehli; Weyde, Kjell Vegard Fjeldheim; Engel, Stephanie M.; Suren, Pål & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2019). Prenatal exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances and associations with symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and cognitive functions in preschool children. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. ISSN 1438-4639. 223(1), p. 80–92. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.10.003. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  BACKGROUND: Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent organic pollutants that are suspected to be neurodevelopmental toxicants, but epidemiological evidence on neurodevelopmental effects of PFAS exposure is inconsistent. We investigated the associations between prenatal exposure to PFASs and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and cognitive functioning (language skills, estimated IQ and working memory) in preschool children, as well as effect modification by child sex. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study included 944 mother-child pairs enrolled in a longitudinal prospective study of ADHD symptoms (the ADHD Study), with participants recruited from The Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Boys and girls aged three and a half years, participated in extensive clinical assessments using well-validated tools; The Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment interview, Child Development Inventory and Stanford-Binet (5th revision). Prenatal levels of 19 PFASs were measured in maternal blood at week 17 of gestation. Multivariable adjusted regression models were used to examine exposure-outcome associations with two principal components extracted from the seven detected PFASs. Based on these results, we performed regression analyses of individual PFASs categorized into quintiles. RESULTS: PFAS component 1 was mainly explained by perfluoroheptane sulfonate (PFHpS), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). PFAS component 2 was mainly explained by perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA). Regression models showed a negative association between PFAS component 1 and nonverbal working memory [β = -0.08 (CI: -0.12, -0.03)] and a positive association between PFAS component 2 and verbal working memory [β = 0.07 (CI: 0.01, 0.12)]. There were no associations with ADHD symptoms, language skills or IQ. For verbal working memory and PFAS component 2, we found evidence for effect modification by child sex, with associations only for boys. The results of quintile models with individual PFASs, showed the same pattern for working memory as the results in the component regression analyses. There were negative associations between nonverbal working memory and quintiles of PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, PFHpS and PFOS and positive associations between verbal working memory and quintiles of PFOA, PFNA, PFDA and PFUnDA, with significant relationships mainly in the highest concentration groups. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our results, we did not find consistent evidence to conclude that prenatal exposure to PFASs are associated with ADHD symptoms or cognitive dysfunctions in preschool children aged three and a half years, which is in line with the majority of studies in this area. Our results showed some associations between PFASs and working memory, particularly negative relationships with nonverbal working memory, but also positive relationships with verbal working memory. The relationships were weak, as well as both positive and negative, which suggest no clear association - and need for replication.

• Pedersen, Maria; Asprusten, Tarjei Tørre; Godang, Kristin; Leegaard, Truls Michael; Osnes, Liv T. N. & Skovlund, Eva [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2019). Fatigue in Epstein-Barr virus infected adolescents and healthy controls: A prospective multifactorial association study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. ISSN 0022-3999. 121, p. 46–59. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2019.04.008. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA

• Lau, Bjørn & Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Klinisk arbeidspsykologi. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215035956. 200 p. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA

• Skogli, Erik Winther & Øie, Merete Glenne (2026). Livet blir bedre for barn og ungdom med ADHD eller autisme. Tidsskrift for Norsk psykologforening (Psykologtidsskriftet). ISSN 0332-6470. 63(5), p. 301–303. doi: https:/www.psykologtidsskriftet.no/artikkel/2026as04ae-Livet-blir-bedre-for-barn-og-ungdom-med-ADHD-eller-autisme. Full text in Research Archive
• Ueland, Torill; Grimstad, Kristoffer; Sørensen, Håkon; Øie, Merete Glenne & Vaskinn, Anja (2026). Reply to Stip and colleagues. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 45, p. 1–3. doi: 10.1016/j.scog.2026.100429. Full text in Research Archive
• Haugen, Ingvild; Gulsrud, Anne Myge; Dyresen, Agnete; Stubberud, Jan Egil; Fjermestad, Krister Westlye & Øie, Merete Glenne (2025). Adolescents with ADHD and their caregivers find Goal Management Training as credible as standard treatment. Full text in Research Archive
• Gulsrud, Anne Myge; Haugen, Ingvild; Dyresen, Agnete; Westlye, Lars Tjelta; Alnæs, Dag & Fjermestad, Krister Westlye [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2025). iPad-based Assessment of Executive Function and Processing Speed in Adolescents with ADHD. Full text in Research Archive
• Dyresen, Agnete; Fjermestad, Krister Westlye; Kodal, Arne; Orm, Stian; Posserud, Maj-Britt Rocio & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). The Role of Externalizing Symptoms on Long-term Treatment Outcomes in Youth with Anxiety Disorders. Full text in Research Archive
• Dyresen, Agnete; Haugen, Ingvild; Gulsrud, Anne Myge; Stubberud, Jan Egil; Fjermestad, Krister Westlye & Øie, Merete Glenne (2025). Adapting Metacognitive Strategy Training for Adolescents with ADHD. Full text in Research Archive
• Skogli, Erik Winther; Orm, Stian; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann & Øie, Merete Glenne (2024). Diagnostisk stabilitet hos barn og unge med ADHD etter 10 år. Stå På ! (medlemsblad for ADHD-foreningen). Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne & Lundervold, Astri J. (2024). ADHD-Psychological interventions Chairs Symposium. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne; Haugen, Ingvild; Dyresen, Agnete; Gulsrud, Anne Myge; Stubberud, Jan Egil & Fjermestad, Krister Westlye (2024). Behovet er stort for nye tilnærminger til ADHD-behandling. Debattinlegg. Aftenposten. Full text in Research Archive
• Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Øie, Merete Glenne; Orm, Stian; Hovik, Kjell Tore; Andersen, Per Normann & Skogli, Erik Winther (2023). Development of everyday executive function in Autism Spectrum Disorder and ADHD. Full text in Research Archive
• Øverland, Elisabeth; Pellicano, Elizabeth; Skogli, Erik Winther; Hauge, Åshild Lappegard; Orm, Stian & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Growing up with autism: Perspectives from autistic emerging adults on Quality of Life. Full text in Research Archive
• Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Fjermestad, Krister Westlye; Andersen, Per Normann & Skogli, Erik Winther (2023). Executive Functioning and Anxiety/Depressive Symptoms as Mediators Between ADHD and Quality of Life: A 10-year Longitudinal Study. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with impaired executive functioning and anxiety/depressive symptoms, which may contribute to reduced quality of life. We tested the hypotheses that (1) a childhood diagnosis of ADHD is related to reduced quality of life in emerging adulthood and that (2) this relationship is mediated by impaired executive functioning and anxiety/depressive symptoms. Participants and Methods: We assessed 85 children and adolescents with ADHD and 50 typically developing peers at baseline (Mean age = 11.6 years, 58% males), two-year follow-up, and 10-year follow-up with neuropsychological tests of executive functioning, the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), the Short Moods and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ), and the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale, second edition (RCMAS-2), as well as the Perceived Quality of Life scale (PQoL) at the 10-year follow-up. Four neuropsychological tests of executive functioning, the Letter-Number Sequencing test (working memory), the Color-Word Interference test condition 3 (response inhibition), the Color-Word Interference test condition 4 (shifting), and the trail making test condition 4 (cognitive flexibility) were combined into a neuropsychological executive functioning composite score based on high factor loadings (≥ .73). the parent-reported BRIEF indexes, the behavioral regulation index, and the metacognition index were used as measures of everyday executive functioning. We conducted independent samples t-tests to compare the groups and simple and parallel mediation analyses with full information maximum likelihood estimation to examine whether the different executive functioning measures and anxiety/depressive symptoms at two-year follow-up mediated the relationship between baseline ADHD and self-reported quality of life at 10-year follow-up. Results: Baseline ADHD was associated with more difficulties with executive functioning on a composite measure of neuropsychological tests (p < .001, Hedges g = .79) and parent-reported everyday metacognitive (p < .001, Hedges g = 2.37) and behavioral regulation executive functioning (p < .001, Hedges g = 1.55), as well as self-reported anxiety (p < .001, Hedges g = 1.05) and depressive symptoms (p < .001, Hedges g = 1.00) at two-year follow-up. Baseline ADHD was associated with lower self-reported quality of life (p = .001, Hedges g = -.67) at 10-year follow-up. The mediation analysis showed that everyday metacognitive executive functioning (p = .011, β = -.497) and an anxiety/depressive symptoms composite (p < .001, β = -.404) parallelly mediated the relationship between ADHD and quality of life. Conclusions: Impaired everyday executive functioning and anxiety/depressive symptoms may represent two distinct pathways to reduced quality of life in emerging adults with a childhood diagnosis of ADHD. These findings stress the importance of targeting both cognitive and emotional aspects in interventions for children and adolescents with ADHD to improve later quality of life.

• Skogli, Erik Winther; Orm, Stian; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann & Øie, Merete Glenne (2023). ADHD persistence from childhood into young adult age. Full text in Research Archive
• Köder, Franziska Maria; Sharma, Curtis; Garraffa, Maria & Øie, Merete Glenne (2023). Does multilingualism affect attention levels and probability of ADHD diagnosis? Evidence from a Norwegian cohort study. Full text in Research Archive
• Andersen, Per Normann; Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne & Skogli, Erik Winther (2022). Livskvalitet hos unge voksne med autisme - betydningen av internaliserende vansker? Full text in Research Archive
• Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann & Skogli, Erik Winther (2022). Utvikling av psykisk helse fra barndom til ung voksen alder hos personer med ASD eller ADHD. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2022). Hva er sammenhengen mellom kognitive vansker og arbeidsfunksjon hos mennesker med psykiske helseproblemer? Full text in Research Archive
• Orm, Stian; Øie, Merete Glenne; Fossum, Ingrid Nesdal; Andersen, Per Normann & Skogli, Erik Winther (2022). Depressive Symptoms in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study. Full text in Research Archive
• Lau, Bjørn & Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Innledningskapittel. In Lau, Bjørn & Øie, Merete Glenne (Ed.), Klinisk arbeidspsykologi. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215035956. p. 13–21. Full text in Research Archive
• Skogheim, Thea Steen; Weyde, Kjell Vegard Fjeldheim; Engel, Stephanie M.; Aase, Heidi; Suren, Pål & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2021). Risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in children associated with gestational levels of toxic metals and essential elements. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Psykiske lidelser, kognisjon og arbeidsfunksjon. In Lau, Bjørn & Øie, Merete Glenne (Ed.), Klinisk arbeidspsykologi. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215035956. p. 105–121. Full text in Research Archive
• Andersen, Per Normann; Skogli, Erik Winther; Hovik, Kjell Tore & Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Utvikling av eksekutive funskjoner hos barn med ADHD eller Autisme. STÅ PÅ!. Full text in Research Archive
• Skogli, Erik Winther; Andersen, Per Normann; Hovik, Kjell Tore & Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Underdiagnostisering av jenter med ADHD. STÅ PÅ!. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Ruselidelse og kognitive vansker. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Uoppdaget ADHD: - Diagnosen en lettelse. [Journal]. Dagbladet. Full text in Research Archive
• Stubberud, Jan & Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Tilrettelegging for kognitive vansker. In Lau, Bjørn & Øie, Merete Glenne (Ed.), Klinisk arbeidspsykologi. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215035956. p. 157–170. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Nevroutviklingsforstyrrelser: Kognitive utfordringer og deltagelse i arbeidslivet. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2020). Vi lever med hjernen på godt og vondt. [Internet]. Podcast Hjernepodden. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2020). Kognitive utfordringer ved psykiske lidelser og rus – hvordan forstår vi disse vanskene, og hvordan kan vil legge bedre til rette for deltakelse i arbeidslivet? Full text in Research Archive
• Skogheim, Thea Steen; Weyde, Kjell Vegard Fjeldheim; Aase, Heidi; Engel, Stephanie M.; Suren, Pål & Øie, Merete Glenne [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2020). Prenatal exposure to metals and associations with ADHD and ASD in children. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Et nevropsykologisk perspektiv på avhengighet. Full text in Research Archive
• Andersen, Per Normann; Øie, Merete Glenne; Skogli, Erik Winther; Hovik, Kjell Tore & Rund, Bjørn Rishovd (2019). Similar impairments on a brief neuropsychological test battery in adolescents with high-functioning autism & early onset schizophrenia: a two-year follow-up study. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Et nevropsykologisk perspektiv på samtykkekompetanse. Full text in Research Archive
• Håkansson, UIrika; Watten, Reidulf G. & Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). The Association between executive functioning and parental stress is mediated by parental reflective functioning in mothers With substance use disorder. Full text in Research Archive
• Skogli, Erik Winther; Andersen, Per Normann & Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Lillehammer neurodevelopmental follow-up study. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne & Torgalsbøen, Anne-Kari (2019). Psykose eller ADHD- hva predikerer hvordan det går på lang sikt? Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Et nevropsykologisk perspektiv på avhengighet. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Hvilken betydning har kognisjon for hvordan det går med ungdom med ADHD eller schizofreni når de blir voksne? Resultater fra 25 års oppfølging. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Eksekutive vansker: med fokus på hvordan en kan bruke sine ressurser og hva disse vanskene vil si i hverdag og arbeid/utdanning. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Født sånn eller blitt sånn; Hva påvirker kognitive funksjoner og det å ta fornuftige valg hos mennesker med psykiske lidelser og rusbruk? Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Schizofreni og ADHD-forskning. Stå På ! (medlemsblad for ADHD-foreningen). p. 26–30. Full text in Research Archive
• Øie, Merete Glenne (2019). Fysiske og psykiske tilstander som kan gi kognitive vansker. Full text in Research Archive
• Skogheim, Thea Steen; Villanger, Gro Dehli; Suren, Pål & Øie, Merete Glenne (2021). Maternal levels of environmental toxicants and essential elements during pregnancy and associations with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder and cognitive functions in children. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Knowledge about effects of early-life exposure to toxicants on human brain development is still limited. This thesis investigated relationships between levels of environmental toxicants (PFASs, metals) and essential elements in pregnancy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, cognitive functions and diagnosis of ADHD and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children. The research project included data on 3,167 pregnant women and their children from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. Maternal blood levels were measured mid-pregnancy. The findings indicate that some of the toxicants and elements affect neurodevelopmental outcomes in a similar fashion. PFOA, cadmium, lead, arsenic, magnesium, manganese, and copper were associated with increased risk of ASD and/or ADHD diagnosis. The highest prenatal levels of several PFASs (e.g. PFOS and PFOA) were associated with lowered scores of nonverbal working memory in preschoolers. Altogether, the results support that in utero exposure to some of the investigated toxicants and elements may represent overlapping environmental risk factors for neurodevelopmental disorders and related cognitive deficits.

View all works in NVA