Pål Kraft

• Kraft, Pål & Kraft, Brage (2023). The income-happiness nexus: uncovering the importance of social comparison processes in subjective wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1283601.
• Kraft, Pål & Kraft, Brage (2023). Exploring the relationship between multiple dimensions of subjective socioeconomic status and self-reported physical and mental health: the mediating role of affect. Frontiers in Public Health. ISSN 2296-2565. 11. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1138367.
• Stenseng, Frode; Bredvei Steinsholt, Ingvild; Hygen, Beate Wold & Kraft, Pål (2023). Running to get “lost”? Two types of escapism in recreational running and their relations to exercise dependence and subjective well-being. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1035196. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Escapism is a fundamental motivation in many forms of activity engagements. At its core, escapism is “a habitual diversion of the mind … as an escape from reality or routine”. Accordingly, escapism may entail many adaptive and maladaptive psychological antecedents, covariates, and outcomes. However, few studies have been conducted on escapism as a motivational mindset in running. Here, in a sample of recreational runners (N = 227), we applied a two-dimensional model of escapism, comprising self-expansion (adaptive escapism) and self-suppression (maladaptive escapism), and examined how they were related to exercise dependence and subjective well-being. First, confirmatory factor analyses showed that the escapism dimensions were highly diversifiable in the sample. Then, correlational analyses showed that self-expansion was positively correlated to subjective well-being, whereas self-suppression was negatively related to well-being. Self-suppression was more strongly related to exercise dependence compared to self-expansion. Finally, path analyses evidenced an explanatory role of self-expansion and self-suppression in the inverse relationship between exercise dependence and well-being. In conclusion, the present findings support escapism as a relevant framework for understanding the relationship between exercise dependence in running and subjective well-being.

• Kraft, Pål; Kraft, Brage; Hagen, Thomas & Espeseth, Thomas (2022). Subjective Socioeconomic Status, Cognitive Abilities, and Personal Control: Associations With Health Behaviours. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.784758.
• Kraft, Pål & Kraft, Brage (2021). Explaining socioeconomic disparities in health behaviours: A review of biopsychological pathways involving stress and inflammation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. ISSN 0149-7634. 127, p. 689–708. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.019.
• Ulset, Vidar; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Kraft, Brage; Kraft, Pål; Wikenius, Ellen & Kleppestø, Thomas Haarklau [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2019). Are unpopular children more likely to get sick? Longitudinal links between popularity and infectious diseases in early childhood . PLOS ONE. ISSN 1932-6203. 14(9), p. 1–14. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222222. Full text in Research Archive
• Drozd, Filip; Skeie, Linda Gail; Kraft, Pål & Kvale, Dag (2014). A web-based intervention trial for depressive symptoms and subjective well-being in patients with chronic HIV infection. AIDS Care. ISSN 0954-0121. 26(9), p. 1080–1089. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2013.869541. Show summary

  The current study examined the efficacy of a web-based intervention (WBI; Avanti) on symptoms of depression and well-being for patients diagnosed with HIV. A two-armed randomized trial recruited patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) at an outpatient clinic. Thirty-six patients were allocated to Avanti and 31 patients to a control group. Primary outcomes were symptoms of depression and subjective well-being (SWB), and secondary outcomes included life satisfaction and affect balance. Paired tests showed that only patients following Avanti had significant improvements in SWB by 3 months as well as affect balance. No significant differences between groups were detected in any of the outcome parameters at baseline after 3 months, as expected from group size and variability in the parameters. However, time since HIV diagnosis and ART initiation moderated the effects of Avanti. In conclusion, our data show that patients with HIV infection may benefit from a WBI in adjunct to medical treatment.

• Kraft, Pål (2013). Konsekvenser av cannabisbruk for arbeid og utdanning. In Bretteville-Jensen, Anne Line (Eds.), Hva vet vi om cannabis?. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 978-82-15-02139-3. p. 83–97. Show summary

  Cannabis (hasj og marihuana) er både velkjent og ukjent på samme tid. Det er 50 år siden cannabis ble introdusert her i landet og mange har egne erfaringer med stoffet. Mye har imidlertid forandret seg: mengden av virkestoffer i hasj og marihuana er endret, det har kommet nye cannabislignende produkter, hjemmedyrking er blitt mer utbredt og ny viten om skader er framkommet. Hvilke argumenter støttes av gjeldende forskning? Men hva vet vi egentlig om cannabis og om de ulike grupper av brukere, om stoffets virkninger og om effekter av tiltak? Mange mener mye om norsk narkotikapolitikk, og det opereres med flere «sannheter» om hva bruken kan føre til – både av positive og negative ting. Hvilke argumenter kan egentlig støttes av gjeldende forskning, og hvilke spørsmål kan besvares ut fra den kunnskapen vi har til nå? Kunnskapsstatus, ikke politikk Boka argumenterer ikke for et bestemt narkotikapolitisk ståsted eller for bestemte narkotikapolitiske tiltak. Viktige temaer som forebygging og behandling er utelatt. Gjennom bidrag fra ulike samfunnsvitenskaper, juss og medisin er målsettingen likevel å formidle kunnskapsstatusen på sentral områder rundt bruken av cannabis.

• Halkjelsvik, Torleif; Lund, Karl Erik; Kraft, Pål & Rise, Jostein (2013). Fear appeals in advanced tobacco control environments: the impact of a National Mass Media Campaign in Norway. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. 28(5), p. 888–897. doi: 10.1093/her/cyt064. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Norway has one of the most comprehensive infrastructures for tobacco control in the world and has launched several media campaigns recent years. Can yet another anti-smoking campaign, using fear appeal messages, have an immediate impact on smoking behavior, motivation to quit and health beliefs? A sample of smokers (N = 2543) completed a survey before and after a 7-week national media campaign. Individual exposure to campaign (unaided recall) was used as predictor of change. We observed no statistically significant effect on smoking status but tendencies were in the expected direction for daily smokers (P = 0.09). There were no effects on number of cigarettes per day, likelihood to quit or reduce smoking. Small but statistically significant effects were found on motivation to quit (P < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.004) and perceived seriousness of health hazards (P < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.002). In addition, there was an increase in interpersonal discussions about health and smoking for those exposed to the campaign (P < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.008). We conclude that there are very small effects of a relatively short and intense mass media campaign on a population of smokers already exposed to one of the most comprehensive tobacco control programs in the world.

• Drozd, Filip; Raeder, Sabine; Kraft, Pål & Bjørkli, Cato Alexsander (2013). Multilevel Growth Curve Analyses of Treatment Effects of a Web-Based Intervention for Stress Reduction: Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research. ISSN 1438-8871. 15(4). doi: 10.2196/jmir.2570. Show summary

  Background: Stress is commonly experienced by many people and it is a contributing factor to many mental and physical health conditions, However, few efforts have been made to develop and test the effects of interventions for stress. Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a Web-based stress-reduction intervention on stress, investigate mindfulness and procrastination as potential mediators of any treatment effects, and test whether the intervention is equally effective for females as males, all ages, and all levels of education. Methods: We employed a randomized controlled trial in this study. Participants were recruited online via Facebook and randomly assigned to either the stress intervention or a control condition. The Web-based stress intervention was fully automated and consisted of 13 sessions over 1 month. The controls were informed that they would get access to the intervention after the final data collection. Data were collected at baseline and at 1, 2, and 6 months after intervention onset by means of online questionnaires. Outcomes were stress, mindfulness, and procrastination, which were all measured at every measurement occasion. Results: A total of 259 participants were included and were allocated to either the stress intervention (n=126) or the control condition (n=133). Participants in the intervention and control group were comparable at baseline; however, results revealed that participants in the stress intervention followed a statistically different (ie, cubic) developmental trajectory in stress levels over time compared to the controls. A growth curve analysis showed that participants in the stress intervention (unstandardized beta coefficient [B]=–3.45, P=.008) recovered more quickly compared to the control group (B=–0.81, P=.34) from baseline to 1 month. Although participants in the stress intervention did show increases in stress levels during the study period (B=2.23, P=.008), long-term stress levels did decrease again toward study end at 6 months (B=–0.28, P=.009). Stress levels in the control group, however, remained largely unchanged after 1 month (B=0.29, P=.61) and toward 6 months (B=–0.03, P=.67). Mediation analyses showed nonlinear (ie, cubic) specific indirect effects of mindfulness and a linear specific indirect effect of procrastination on stress. In simple terms, the intervention increased mindfulness and decreased procrastination, which was related to lower stress levels. Finally, the effect of the stress intervention was independent of participants’ gender, age, or education. Conclusions: The results from this randomized controlled trial suggest that a Web-based intervention can reduce levels of stress in a normal population and that both mindfulness and procrastination may be important components included in future eHealth interventions for stress. Trial Registration: International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN): 25619675; http://controlled-trials.com/ISRCTN25619675 (Archived by Webcite at http://www.webcitation.org/6FxB1gOKY)

• Haga, Silje Marie; Lynne, Anita; Slinning, Kari & Kraft, Pål (2012). A qualitative study of depressive symptoms and well-being among first-time mothers. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences. ISSN 0283-9318. 26(3), p. 458–466. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6712.2011.00950.x. Show summary

  BACKGROUND AND AIM: Ten to 15% of women experience postpartum depression. First-time mothers are particularly at risk. The present qualitative study aimed to gain insight in terms of why some women find the transition of becoming a mother to be so emotionally taxing that they feel some level of depressed mood, while others feel mostly content after having a baby. METHOD: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 self-selected first-time mothers. Participants described their pregnancy and birth experience, expectations and experiences with regard to the postpartum period, social support and what they considered important with regard to well-being and depression in the postpartum period. Data were analysed by means of thematic analyses. Ethical approval was granted by the Regional Ethics Committee. RESULTS: Two approaches to motherhood emerged, which we refer to as 'relaxed' and 'controlled'. These approaches influenced how the mothers had envisioned the postpartum period, their need for mastery and how they experienced it emotionally. Social support and managing breastfeeding stood out as important with regard to well-being and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSION: Frequent consultations with midwifes and public health nurses during the pregnancy and the postpartum period gives unique opportunities for preventive work. The consultations should to a greater extent focus on the woman's expectations and needs, and the partner should be present for an open discussion on how they best support each other in this vulnerable period

• Haga, Silje Marie; Ulleberg, Pål; Slinning, Kari; Kraft, Pål; Steen, Thorbjørn & Staff, Anne Cathrine (2012). A longitudinal study of postpartum depressive symptoms: multilevel growth curve analyses of emotion regulation strategies, breastfeeding self-efficacy, and social support. Archives of Women's Mental Health. ISSN 1434-1816. 15(3), p. 175–184. doi: 10.1007/s00737-012-0274-2. Show summary

  Postpartum depression is a serious health issue affecting as many as 10–15 % of postpartum women. This longitudinal study aimed to explore how psychological variables such as cognitive emotion regulation strategies, breastfeeding self-efficacy (BSE), and dimensions of social support predicted postpartum depressive symptoms (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale). The data were collected with web-based survey questionnaires between May 2008 and December 2009, in a sample of 737 new mothers. The same questionnaire was surveyed at three points in time: 6 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months postpartum. Data were analyzed using multilevel modeling (level 1, time points; level 2, person). Results showed that BSE, certain cognitive emotion regulation strategies, perceived available support, and need for support predicted the rate of postpartum depressive symptoms. Only breastfeeding self-efficacy predicted change in postpartum depressive symptoms. This study illustrates the importance of psychological variables with regard to postpartum depressive symptoms. Implications for preventative efforts are discussed.

• Stenseng, Frode; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (2012). Activity Engagement as Escape from Self: The Role of Self-Suppression and Self-Expansion. Leisure Sciences. ISSN 0149-0400. 34(1), p. 19–38. doi: 10.1080/01490400.2012.633849.
• Stenseng, Frode; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (2011). The dark side of leisure: obsessive passion and its covariates and outcomes. Leisure Studies. ISSN 0261-4367. 30(1), p. 49–62. doi: 10.1080/02614361003716982.
• Duckert, Fanny; Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2011). Alcohol problems at the workplace – An arena for early interventions through the Internet. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening. ISSN 0332-6470. 48, p. 767–773. Show summary

  The increasingly easy access to alcohol in Norway has led to a rise in alcohol consumption. The use of alcohol in work-related situations has grown to become a normal feature, especially among persons holding senior positions within business and industry. The economic loss due to employees’ excessive drinking has reached formidable proportions. Early indications of problematic drinking are often vague and ambiguous. It may be difficult to judge whether the person in question actually has a drinking problem. Substance abuse problems at the workplace often become chronic and serious before any one actually acts on them. Early intervention will prevent alcohol related problems at work and increase the possibility of changing destructive patterns. «Balance», a new Internet-based intervention program, is currently under evaluation. The program consists of a screening and preparation phase, an eight-week active reduction phase, and a ten-month follow up phase. In both the preparation phase and the active phase the client communicates with the program daily through the Internet, and by means of cell phone. The various components of the program are described in the article.

• Brendryen, Håvar; Kraft, Pål & Schaalma, Herman (2010). Looking Inside the Black Box: Using Intervention Mapping to Describe the Development of the Automated Smoking Cessation Intervention ‘Happy Ending’. Journal of Smoking Cessation. ISSN 1834-2612. 5(1), p. 29–56. Show summary

  The digital therapy intervention for smoking cessation, ‘Happy Ending’, has been shown to be efficacious in two previous randomised controlled trials. The aim of the current article is to disentangle the rationale of the intervention and describe its development. For this purpose, Intervention Mapping is used as a descriptive tool. The intervention is fully automated and delivered by means of the Internet and mobile phones. It is based on self-regulation theory, social cognitive theory, cognitive– behaviour therapy, motivational interviewing and relapse prevention. The ordering of the content is based on a reasoned chronology, modelled according to psychological processes that people experience at certain time points in a process of therapy-supported self-regulation. The design of the intervention is innovative in that it combines four media channels (SMS, IVR, e-mail, and web), and in the combination of just-in-time therapy and a tunnelling strategy based on the natural chronology of quitting. The two forms of just-in-time therapy are a craving helpline (mainly targeting negative affect), and the provision of relapse therapy based on a daily assessment of the target behaviour. The present article meets the recent calls for more thorough descriptions of interventions, and may inform systematic reviews and the development of interventions.

• Haga, Silje Marie; Kraft, Pål & Corby, Emma Kate (2009). Emotion Regulation: Antecedents and Well-Being Outcomes of Cognitive Reappraisal and Expressive Suppression in Cross-Cultural Samples. Journal of Happiness Studies. ISSN 1389-4978. 10(3), p. 271–291. doi: 10.1007/s10902-007-9080-3.
• Kraft, Pål; Drozd, Filip & Olsen, Elin (2009). ePsychology : Designing Theory-Based Health Promotion Interventions. Communications of the Association for Information Systems. ISSN 1529-3181. 24, p. 399–426. Show summary

  Persuasive technologies pervade much of our everyday lives today in areas from marketing to public health. In the latter case, persuasive technology represents a promising area of application. However, we know much too little about how to design effective interventions to support sustained behaviour change and improved well-being. The purpose of the present paper was to contribute in two ways. First, we want to contribute to current practice in designing such interventions. Second, we try to identify key research questions that could be a point of departure for a more detailed and comprehensive future research program. We do this by means of expressing 28 propositions. In sum, the propositions reflect that the construction of digital interventions should be seen as an iterative process which should take into account both content and design factors. However, we argue that intervention research and practical design experience is not just something that follows basic research at a polite distance, but rather is its inherent complement.

• Rise, Jostein; Kovac, Velibor Bobo; Kraft, Pål & Moan, Inger Synnøve (2008). Predicting the intention to quit smoking and quitting behaviour: Extending the theory of planned behaviour. British Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-107X. 13. doi: 10.1027/1901-2276/a000040. Show summary

  The present study examined the ability of the TPB to predict the intention to quit smoking and quitting behaviour. In addition, the predictive power of future orientation, number of cigarettes smoked, planning, past behaviour and the interactions between intention and other predictors was examined. Material and methods. The data were derived from a longitudinal survey among 103 daily smoking students at the University of Oslo (mean age 24.6 years, mean number of years of smoking = 8 years). These data were collected by means of self-administered questionnaires at T1 (October 2003) and at T2 (February 2004) in terms of recording actual quitting. The TPB components accounted for 30% of the variance in quitting intentions, and affective attitude and descriptive norm emerged as the strongest predictors of quitting intention. Ordinal regression analysis showed that intention was a borderline significant predictor of subsequent quitting behaviour, while the impact of PBC was non-significant (model 1). The inclusion of the additional variables improved the fit of the model, with number of cigarettes and planning appearing as significant predictors of behaviour (model 2). As predicted, there was a significant interaction between perceived control and intentions on quitting (model 3). Nagelkerke R2 increased from .07 in model 1 to .54 in model 2, and finally to .58 in model 3. Conclusions. The results indicate that affective attitude and descriptive norm play a more crucial role than the other TPB predictors in motivating smokers to quit. The results also indicate that self-regulatory strategies are important in relation to addictive behaviours.

• Brendryen, Håvar; Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2008). A Digital Smoking Cessation Program Delivered Through Internet and Cell Phone Without Nicotine Replacement (Happy Ending): Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research. ISSN 1438-8871. 10(5). doi: 10.2196/jmir.1005. Show summary

  Background: Happy Ending (HE) is an intense 1-year smoking cessation program delivered via the Internet and cell phone. HE consists of more than 400 contacts by email, Web pages, interactive voice response, and short message service technology. HE includes a craving helpline and a relapse prevention system, providing just-in-time therapy. All the components of the program are fully automated. Objective: The objectives were to describe the rationale for the design of HE, to assess the 12-month efficacy of HE in a sample of smokers willing to attempt to quit without the use of nicotine replacement therapy, and to explore the potential effect of HE on coping planning and self-efficacy (prior to quitting) and whether coping planning and self-efficacy mediate treatment effect. Methods: A two-arm randomized controlled trial was used. Subjects were recruited via Internet advertisements and randomly assigned to condition. Inclusion criteria were willingness to quit on a prescribed day without using nicotine replacement and being aged 18 years or older. The intervention group received HE, and the control group received a 44-page self-help booklet. Abstinence was defined as “not even a puff of smoke, for the last seven days” and was assessed by means of Internet surveys or telephone interviews 1, 3, 6, and 12 months postcessation. The main outcome was repeated point abstinence (ie, abstinence at all four time points). Coping planning and self-efficacy were measured at baseline and at the end of the preparation phase (ie, after 2 weeks of treatment, but prior to cessation day). Results: A total of 290 participants received either the HE intervention (n=144) or the control booklet (n=146). Using intent-to-treat analysis, participants in the intervention group reported clinically and statistically significantly higher repeated point abstinence rates than control participants (20% versus 7%, odds ratio [OR] = 3.43, 95% CI = 1.60-7.34, P = .002). Although no differences were observed at baseline, by the end of the preparation phase, significantly higher levels of coping planning (t261 = 3.07, P = .002) and precessation self-efficacy (t261 = 2.63, P = .01) were observed in the intervention group compared with the control group. However, neither coping planning nor self-efficacy mediated long-term treatment effect. For point abstinence 1 month after quitting, however, coping planning and self-efficacy showed a partial mediation of the treatment effect. Conclusions: This 12-month trial documents a long-term treatment effect of a fully automated smoking cessation intervention without the use of nicotine replacement therapy. The study adds to the promise of using digital media in supporting behavior change.

• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2008). Happy Ending: a randomized controlled trial of a digital multi-media smoking cessation intervention. Addiction. ISSN 0965-2140. 103. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.02119.x.
• Kraft, Pål; Drozd, Filip & Olsen, Elin (2008). Digital therapy: Addressing willpower as part of the cognitive-affective processing system in the service of habit change. In Oinas-Kukkonen, Harri; Hasle, Per; Harjumaa, Marja; Segerståhl, Katarina & Øhrstrøm, Peter (Ed.), Persuasive Technology. Springer. ISSN 978-3-540-68500-5. p. 177–188. Show summary

  We know much too little about how to design effective digital interventions to support sustained behavior change and improved well-being. The purpose of the present paper was to contribute in two ways. First, we want to contribute to current practice in designing such interventions. Second, we try to identify key research questions that could be a point of departure for a more detailed and comprehensive future research program. The propositions we suggest reflect that the construction of digital interventions should be seen as an iterative process which should take into account both "content" and "design" factors. However, we argue that intervention research and practical design experience is not just something that follows basic research at a polite distance, but rather is its inherent complement.

• Iversen, Anette & Kraft, Pål (2006). Coping with health related messages: The role of educational level and health consciousness. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153.
• Iversen, Anette Christine & Kraft, Pål (2006). Does socio-economic status and health consciousness influence how women respond to health related messages in media? Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. 21, p. 601–610.
• Kraft, Pål (2005). Terrorens psykologi. In Rasch, Bjørn Erik (Eds.), Islamistisk terrorisme. Abstrakt forlag. ISSN 82-7935-179-5. p. 122–144. Show summary

  Hva kjennetegner islamistisk terrorisme? Hvilke mål har terrorgruppene? Er den radikale islamismen på fremmarsj? Hva får noen til å ta livet av seg selv og flest mulig andre uten å være lei av livet? Hva er egentlig forholdet mellom jihad og politisk vold? Fører terrortrusselen til at etablerte friheter og rettigheter må innskrenkes? Står vi midt oppe i en intens konfrontasjon mellom sivilisasjoner? Dette er noen av spørsmålene som et bredt spekter av eksperter belyser i denne boken. Forfatterne undersøker bakgrunnen for den type terrorisme som preger dagens nyhetsbilde, analyserer ideologien, visjonene og motivene til islamistiske terrorgrupper, og drøfter hvordan terrortrusselen kan og bør møtes.

• Kraft, Pål; Rise, Jostein; Sutton, Stephen & Røysamb, Espen (2005). Perceived difficulty in the theory of planned behaviour: perceived behavioural control or affective attitude? British Journal of Social Psychology. ISSN 0144-6665. 44(3), p. 479–496. doi: 10.1348/014466604X17533. Show summary

  A study was conducted to explore (a) the dimensional structure of perceived behavioural control (PBC), (b) the conceptual basis of perceived difficulty items, and (c) how PBC components and instrumental and affective attitudes, respectively, relate to intention and behaviour. The material stemmed from a two-wave study of Norwegian graduate students (N = 227 for the prediction of intention and N = 110 for the prediction of behaviour). Data were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multiple regression by the application of structural equation modelling (SEM). CFA suggested that PBC could be conceived of as consisting of three separate but interrelated factors (perceived control, perceived confidence and perceived difficulty), or as two separate but interrelated factors representing self-efficacy (measured by perceived difficulty and perceived confidence or by just perceived confidence) and perceived control. However, the perceived difficulty items also overlapped substantially with affective attitude. Perceived confidence was a strong predictor of exercise intention but not of recycling intention. Perceived control, however, was a strong predictor of recycling intention but not exercise intention. Affective attitudes but not instrumental attitudes were identified as substantial predictors of intentions. The findings suggest that at least under some circumstances it may be inadequate to measure PBC by means of perceived difficulty. One possible consequence may be that the role of PBC as a predictor of intention is somewhat overestimated, whereas the role of (affective) attitude may be similarly underestimated.

• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (2003). Control constructs: do they mediate the relationship between eduactional attainment and health behaviour? Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 8(3), p. 361–372. Show summary

  Health promoting behaviours seem to be more prevalent among people with higher socio-economic status (SES). The main purpose of this article was to study (a) the relationship between education (as a dimension of SES) and intention and health behaviour (fruit/vegetable consumption), (b) the relationship between education and control conceptualizations (health locus of control (HLC), responseefficacy and self-efficacy) and (c) to what extent the relationship between education and intention/health behaviour (fruit/vegetable consumption)was mediated through different control beliefs. The results showed that women with higher education had higher intentions to consume fruit/vegetables and consumed fruit/vegetables more frequently. Higher education was associated with higher selfefficacy and response-efficacy beliefs and less belief in HLCchance. These control beliefs partly mediated the education–intention/behaviour elationship.

• Leganger, Anette; Kraft, Pål & Torsheim, Torbjørn (2003). Control constructs: do they mediate the relation between educational attainment and health behaviour? Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. p. 361–372.
• Kraft, Pål & Fekadu, Zelalem (2002). Expanding the theory of planned behaviour : the role of social norms and group identification. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 7(1), p. 33–43.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Holsen, Ingrid (2002). The relationship between body image and depressed mood - a 5-year longitudinal study in Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), p. 613–627.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2002). Expanding the theory of planned behaviour: The role of social norms and group identification. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 7(1), p. 33–43.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2002). Expanding the theory of planned behaviour: The role of social norms and group identification. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. p. 33–43.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Holsen, Ingrid (2002). The relationship between body image and depressed mood - a 5-year longitudinal study in Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), p. 613–627.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Ekeberg, Øivind & Dieserud, Gudrun (2001). Toward an integrative model of suicide attempt: A cognitive psychological approach. ?. 31(2), p. 153–168. Show summary

  Applying a cognitive approach, the purpose of the present study was to expand previous research on stress-vulnerability models of depression and problem-solving deficits, as it relates to suicide attempt. Structural equation modelling, involving latent variables, was used to evaluate (a) whether low self-esteem, a low sense of self-efficacy, loneliness, and divorce constituted vulnerability factors for the development of depression; (b) whether hopelessness and suicidal ideation mediated the relationship between depression and suicide attempt; and (c) whether problem-solving deficits mediated the relationship between the vulnerability factors and suicide attempt, separate from depression/hopelessness. A total of 123 individuals, aged 18-75 years, participated in the study (72 suicide attempters and 51 psychiatric outpatients with no history of suicidal behavior). The results indicated a two path model of suicide attempt. The first path began with low self-esteem, loneliness, and separation or divorce, which advanced to depression, and was further mediated by hopelessness and suicidal ideation which led to suicide attempt. The second path developed from low self-esteem and a low sense of self-efficacy and advanced to suicide attempt, mediated by a negative appraisal of one's own problem-solving capacity, and poor interpersonal problem-solving skills. The importance of addressing both depression/hopelessness, and problem-solving deficits when working with suicide attempters is noted. :

• Kraft, Pål & Fekadu, Zelalem (2001). Predicting intended contraception in a sample of Ethiopian female adolesents: The validity of the theory of planned behavior. ?. 16(2), p. 207–222. Show summary

  The purposes of the study were threefold. First, to test the validity of Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) in predicting intended contraception in the Ethiopian cultural setting. Second, to examine the additional predictive roles of past behavior and perceived pregnancy risk in the TPB model. Third, to identify the salient contraceptive beliefs influencing intended contraception. Data stemmed from a community sample of 354 sexually active female adolescents aged 15 to 19 years. The findings of the study supported TPB as a robust model in Ethiopian cultural setting, with subjective norm being the strongest predictor of intended contraception. In addition, both past contraceptive behavior and perceived pregnancy risk demonstrated to have significant contributions in predicting intention over and above that explained by attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control elements of the TPB. Moreover, the study also identified salient and important contraceptive beliefs that need to be addressed in family life education and counseling programs designed for adolescents and the youth.

• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Holsen, Ingrid & Breivik, Solveig (2001). Kroppsbilde og depresssive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. 42(2), p. 191–222.
• Kraft, Pål & Fekadu, Zelalem (2001). Augmenting planned behavior with self-identity theory: Self.identity, past behavior and its moderating effects in predictiong intention. ?. 29, p. 671–685.
• Holsen, Ingrid; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2001). The relationship between body image and depressed mood in adolescence: A 5-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), p. 613–627.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Predicting intended contraception in a sample of Ethiopian female adolescents: The validity of the theory of planned behavior. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 16, p. 207–222.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Self-identity in planned behavior perspective: Past behavior and its moderating effects on self-identity-intention relations. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal. ISSN 0301-2212. 29(7), p. 671–685.
• Dieserud, Gudrun; Røysamb, Espen; Øyvind, Ekeberg & Kraft, Pål (2001). Towards an Integrative Model of Suicidal Tendency. A Cognitive Psychological Approach. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour. ISSN 0363-0234. p. 153–168.
• Kraft, Pål; Solveig, Breivik; Holsen, Ingrid & Røysamb, Espen (2001). Kroppsbilde og depressive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. 42(2), p. 191–222.
• Holsen, Ingrid; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2001). The relationship between body image and depressed mood - a 5-year longitudinal study in Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), p. 613–627.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Augmenting planned behavior with self-identity theory: Self-identity, past behavior and its moderating effects in predicting intention. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal. ISSN 0301-2212. p. 671–685.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Predicting intended contraception in a sample of Ethiopian female adolescents: The validity of the theory of planned behavior. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446.
• Kraft, Pål; Breivik, Solveig; Røysamb, Espen & Holsen, Ingrid (2001). Kroppsbilde og depressive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. p. 191–222.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Holsen, Ingrid & Breivik, Solveig (2001). Kroppsbilde og depresssive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. 42(2), p. 191–222.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Ekeberg, Øivind & Dieserud, Gudrun (2001). Toward an integrative model of suicide attempt: A cognitive psychological approach. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour. ISSN 0363-0234. 31(2), p. 153–168. Show summary

  Applying a cognitive approach, the purpose of the present study was to expand previous research on stress-vulnerability models of depression and problem-solving deficits, as it relates to suicide attempt. Structural equation modelling, involving latent variables, was used to evaluate (a) whether low self-esteem, a low sense of self-efficacy, loneliness, and divorce constituted vulnerability factors for the development of depression; (b) whether hopelessness and suicidal ideation mediated the relationship between depression and suicide attempt; and (c) whether problem-solving deficits mediated the relationship between the vulnerability factors and suicide attempt, separate from depression/hopelessness. A total of 123 individuals, aged 18-75 years, participated in the study (72 suicide attempters and 51 psychiatric outpatients with no history of suicidal behavior). The results indicated a two path model of suicide attempt. The first path began with low self-esteem, loneliness, and separation or divorce, which advanced to depression, and was further mediated by hopelessness and suicidal ideation which led to suicide attempt. The second path developed from low self-esteem and a low sense of self-efficacy and advanced to suicide attempt, mediated by a negative appraisal of one's own problem-solving capacity, and poor interpersonal problem-solving skills. The importance of addressing both depression/hopelessness, and problem-solving deficits when working with suicide attempters is noted. :

• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Leganger, Anette (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. ?. 15(1), p. 51–69. Show summary

  Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between GSE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was studied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79 and 1576 Norwegian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor structure, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The results indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE and gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations were found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and injury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to different types of attribution and the possibility that the value of different efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout the lifecourse.

• Kraft, Pål; Holsen, Ingrid & Vittersø, Joar (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence: Results from a 6-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. 29(1), p. 61–78. Show summary

  A 6-year longitudinal panel study investigated the absolute and relative stability in depressed mood throughout adolescence by reporting data from a sample of 538 adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Results revealed the following. (I) Girls had on average higher depressed mood scores than boys at all ages. (2) Among boys there were no substantial changes in depressed mood mean scores, while among girls there was a slight tendency of a curvilinear trend, with a peak level reached in midadolescence. (3) There was a tendency for adolescents to retain their relative level in depressed mood, mast pronounced for a period of 4 years, from age 15 to age 19 years. (4) Depressed mood was most stable in a subgroup of adolescents who had high initial depressed mood scores. (5) By applying structural equation modeling, it was shown that the stable ("trait") component of depressed mood increased in importance with increasing age, while the temporal ("state") component decreased with increased age.

• Leganger, Anette; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 15(1), p. 51–69. Show summary

  Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between GSE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was studied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79 and 1576 Norwegian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor structure, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The results indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE and gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations were found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and injury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to different types of attribution and the ppossibility that the value of different efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout the lifecourse.

• Holsen, Ingrid; Kraft, Pål & Vittersø, Joar (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence – results from a six- year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. 29(1), p. 61–78. Show summary

  A 6-year longitudinal panel study investigated the absolute and relative stability in depressed mood throughout adolescence by reporting data from a sample of 538 adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Results revealed the following. (1) Girls had on average higher depressed mood scores than boys at all ages. (2) Among boys there were no substantial changes in depressed mood mean scores, while among girls there was a slight tendency of a curvilinear trend, with a peak level reached in midadolescence. (3) There was a tendency for adolescents to retain their relative level in depressed mood, most pronounced for a period of 4 years, from age 15 to age 19 years. (4) Depressed mood was most stable in a subgroup of adolescents who had high initial depressed mood scores. (5) By applying structural equation modeling, it was shown that the stable (“trait”) component of depressed mood increased in importance with increasing age, while the temporal (“state”) component decreased with increased age.

• Holsen, Ingrid & Kraft, Pål (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence – results from a six-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. p. 61–78.
• Leganger, Anette; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. p. 51–70.
• Kraft, Pål; Holsen, Ingrid & Vittersø, Joar (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence: Results from a 6-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. 29(1), p. 61–78. Show summary

  A 6-year longitudinal panel study investigated the absolute and relative stability in depressed mood throughout adolescence by reporting data from a sample of 538 adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Results revealed the following. (I) Girls had on average higher depressed mood scores than boys at all ages. (2) Among boys there were no substantial changes in depressed mood mean scores, while among girls there was a slight tendency of a curvilinear trend, with a peak level reached in midadolescence. (3) There was a tendency for adolescents to retain their relative level in depressed mood, mast pronounced for a period of 4 years, from age 15 to age 19 years. (4) Depressed mood was most stable in a subgroup of adolescents who had high initial depressed mood scores. (5) By applying structural equation modeling, it was shown that the stable ("trait") component of depressed mood increased in importance with increasing age, while the temporal ("state") component decreased with increased age.

• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Leganger, Anette (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 15(1), p. 51–69. Show summary

  Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between GSE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was studied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79 and 1576 Norwegian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor structure, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The results indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE and gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations were found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and injury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to different types of attribution and the possibility that the value of different efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout the lifecourse.

• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, S & McCreath, H (1999). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different? Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. p. 433–450.
• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, Stephen & McCreath, Heather (1999). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different? Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 14(3), p. 433–450. Show summary

  Intention to stop smoking was studied by applying the stage variable from the transtheoretical model and a traditional "continuous" 7-poin t intenti measure. 421 respondents, representative of Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79, comprised the sample for the study. As expected, the pros of smoking outweighed the cons in precontemplation, while t he cons of smoking outweighed the pros in the preparation stage. Furt hermore, the hypothesised contrasts for cons between stages were empi rically supported, while those for cessation related confidence and p ros of smoking were not. These findings can be interpreted as providi ng partial support for the idea of qualitatively different stages. Ho wever, all the criterion variables were also linearly associated with the 7-point intention measure. Further analysis showed that includin g the continuous intention measure in a regression model after the in clusion of stage increased the prediction of three criterion variable s, while no gain in information was observed when stage was included in the model after intention. Thus a "continuous" intention measure m ay provide more detailed information than a three-category stage vari able, and the data might just as well have been interpreted as suppor ting the notion of a continuous intention measure.

• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (1999). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. -. Show summary

  Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and S chwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between G SE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was stud ied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79 and 1576 Norweg ian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor str ucture, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The r esults indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE a nd gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations wer e found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and inj ury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to di fferent types of attribution and the possibility that the value of di fferent efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout t he lifecourse.

• Kraft, Pål; Svendsen, T & Hauknes, A (1998). Intention to stop smoking among Norwegian smokers: The role of nicotine dependence, type of cigarettes and age at onset of daily smoking. Addictive Behaviours. ISSN 0306-4603. p. 133–137.
• Kraft, Pål & Svendsen, Terje (1998). Intention to stop smoking among Norwegian smokers:The role of nicotine dependence, type of cigarettes and age at onset of daily smoking. Addictive Behaviours. ISSN 0306-4603. p. 133–137.
• Kraft, Pål & Svendsen, T (1997). Tobacco use among young adults in Norway 1973-95: Has the decrease levelled out? Tobacco Control. ISSN 0964-4563. p. 27–32.
• Røysamb, Espen; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (1997). On the structure and dimensionality of risk-related behavior. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. p. 437–452.
• Nilsen, Øystein & Kraft, Pål (1997). Do local inhabitants want to participate in community injury prevention. A focus upon the significance of local identities for community participation. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. p. 333–345.
• Røysamb, Espen; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (1997). On the structure and dimensionality of risk-related behaviour. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 12, p. 437–452.
• Nilsen, Øystein & Kraft, Pål (1997). Do local inhabitants wat to participate in community injury prevention. A focus upon the significance of local identities for community participati. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. p. 333–345.

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• Kraft, Pål (2016). Rusmiddelavhengighet. Et psykologisk perspektiv. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215026268. 232 p.
• Kraft, Pål (2016). Rusmiddelavhengighet - et psykologisk perspektiv. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215026268. 232 p.
• Kraft, Pål (2014). Selvregulering: Om endring av atferd og vaner i det moderne samfunnet. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215024530. 212 p. Show summary

  Mange av de problemene som moderne menneskene sliter med, henger sammen med manglende selvregulering: bruk av rusmidler, overspising, aggresjon, eller overforbruk av penger. Mange av disse problemene håndteres av kriminalomsorgen, rettsvesenet, helsevesenet, NAV eller barnevernet. Manglende selvregulering er således et problem både for enkeltpersoner og for samfunnet. Forfatterens utgangspunkt er at hjernen og kroppen vår stort sett er slik de var for mange tusen år siden. Helt annerledes er det med samfunnet. Teknologien og kulturen har utviklet seg radikalt på bare noen få hundre år. Resultatet er at vi lever i et hypermoderne samfunn, men med gammeldagse kropper og hjerner. Dette setter store krav til våre evner til selvregulering. Krav som ofte overgår de evnene og mulighetene som vår biologi kan bidra med.

• Kraft, Pål (2002). Opplevd mestringskontroll - en analyse av relevant teori og empirisk forskning. Universitetet i Oslo. ISBN 82-917-13-251. 136 p.

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• Kraft, Pål (2016). Motvind fra alle kanter. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening. ISSN 0332-6470. 53(5), p. 381–385.
• Skeie, Linda Gail; Drozd, Filip; Kraft, Pål & Kvale, Dag (2012). A randomized controlled trial of aweb-based psychological intervention for patients under treatment for chronic HIV infection.
• Kraft, Pål & Yardley, Lucy (2009). Current issues and new directions in Psychology and Health: What is the future of digital interventions for health behaviour change? Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 24(6), p. 615–618. doi: 10.1080/08870440903068581.
• Kraft, Pål & Brendryen, Håvar (2008). A digital smoking cessation intervention evaluated as an information system.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2008). Preventing relapse in a digital smoking cessation intervention.
• Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2008). Digital therapy: A description of a digital and fully automated alcohol intervention.
• Brendryen, Håvar; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2007). Two randomized controlled trials of a digital smoking cessation program.
• Brendryen, Håvar; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2007). Facilitating happy endings for motivated quitters – Two randomized controlled trials of a digital smoking cessation program.
• Kraft, Pål (2007). Digital Therapy: The coming together of psychology and technology.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2006). A RCT of an internet and cell-phone based smoking cessation intervention. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 21, p. 23–24.
• Haga, Silje Marie & Kraft, Pål (2006). The role of emotion-regulation and personal self-consciousness for subjective well-being and depressed mood. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 21, p. 61–61.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2006). Happy Ending: A randomized controlled trial of an internet and cell-phone based smoking cessation intervention.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2006). En randomisert kontrollert studie av en automatisert røykesluttintervensjon basert på bruk av internett og mobiltelefon.
• Rise, Jostein; Kovac, Velibor Bobo & Kraft, Pål (2004). Bridging the intention-behaviour gap of addictive behaviours: the case of quitting smoking.
• Kraft, Pål (2002). Revisiting PBC in the TPB.
• Kraft, Pål (2000). Stage models in health behavior research.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2000). Self-construals and subjective norms in the theory of planned behaviour in Ethiopia.
• Kraft, Pål; Breivik, Solveig; Vittersø, Joar & Holsen, Ingrid (2000). Body image and deression: a longitudinal study of adolescents aged 13-18.
• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (2000). Social differences in health promoting behaviours: the influence of control beliefs. Show summary

  Purpose: The existence of social economic differences in health is well documented. According to the social causation explanation the roots of social inequalities in health are found in the environment of social positions. Hence, components of SES ( income, education and occupation) shape one’s life course and influence key domains in life, such as socialisation practise, psychological development, mood, cognition and health behaviours. The purpose of the present research was threefold: a) to examine SES differences in intention and behaviour related to exercise, consumption of fruit and vegetables, and breast self-examination, b) to study how intention and behaviour was related to different control conceptualisations (HLC, response-efficacy, general and behaviour specific self-efficacy beliefs), and c) to study how these control constructs mediated the relationship between SES and intention/behaviour. Method: Data was collected in autumn 1999 and stemmed from a representative sample of 800 women aged 45 years and living in western Norway. 403 women responded to the first questionnaire (response rate 50.8 %) and 81.6 % of them (41.5 % of the total sample) responded to a second questionnaire one month later. Results:Relevant results will be presented.

• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (1998). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates.
• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, Stephen & McCreath, Heather (1998). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different?
• Nielsen, Bettina; Mork, Lia; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2012). Evaluation of an internet-based intervention for mild-to-moderate depression and promotion of psychological well-being: A randomized controlled trial. Universitetet i Oslo. Show summary

  Background: High prevalence of minor depression and low well-being constitutes both individual and societal burden. The Internet provides a promising platform for treatment delivery. Objective and Method: A randomized controlled trial was conducted to determine the efficacy of an internet-based self-help intervention Bedre Hverdag (BH) for mild-to-moderate depression and promotion of well-being. Long-term effects (i.e.6 months) of BH were assessed in comparison to a waiting-list control group. Results: Of the 206 eligible participants, 112 were randomized to the experimental group and 94 to the waiting-list control group. Data from 34 participants in the experimental group and 47 from the control group were subjected to statistical analyses. Individuals assigned to BH reported significant increases in positive affect (PA) at 1 month follow-up, as measured by Positive Affect Schedual (PANAS); z = - 2.49, p = .011, r = .42 , which were significantly different from levels of PA at the same time period in the control group, U = 589, z = -2.01 , p = .044 , r = .2. Increases in PA were no longer significant at 2 and 6 month follow-ups. No statistically significant reductions in negative affect (NA) as measured by the Negative Affect Schedual (PANAS) and depressive symptoms as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D) were observed in the experimental group as compared to the control group. Treatment x Educational attainment interaction explained 5.3% of variance in depressive symptoms, and 10.7% of variance in NA at 1 month follow-up, above and beyond the main effects. Individuals with lowest level of educational attainment reported largest reductions in both CES-D scores and NA. Conclusion: BH produced significant increases in PA at 1 month post-treatment. No significant reductions were observed in either depressive symptoms or NA. Educational attainment moderated the intervention's effects on depressive symptoms and NA.

• Henriksen, Silje; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2012). En internettbasert og helautomatisk selvhjelpsintervensjon for stressreduksjon: En randomisert kontrollert studie. Universitetet i Oslo. Show summary

  Mål: I denne studien undersøkte vi effekten av en internettbasert, helautomatisk intervensjon som har til hensikt å forebygge og redusere forekomst av stress. Intervensjonen inneholder 13 programdager (sesjoner) som brukeren får tilgang til i løpet av en måned. Metode: Studien ble gjennomført i Norge, og var designet som en to-armet, randomisert, kontrollert studie der stress ble målt rett før og etter intervensjonen, og igjen en og fem måneder etter at intervensjonen var avsluttet. Deltakerne ble selvrekruttert via Facebook, e-post og Google AdWords. Det endelige datamaterialet som ble analysert bestod av 43 personer som mottok intervensjonen (behandlingsgruppen; EG), og 63 personer som stod på venteliste, og som først fikk tilgang til intervensjonen etter siste datainnsamling (ventelistekontrollgruppen; VG). Data ble samlet inn ved bruk av elektroniske spørreskjemaer. Resultat: Brukerne av intervensjonen hadde reduserte stressnivåer fem måneder etter intervensjonen, mens tilsvarende utvikling ikke ble observert i VG. Mer detaljerte analyser viste at effekten av intervensjonen på stress ble delvis mediert via økt grad av oppmerksomt nærvær, som er et tema det arbeiders mye med i intervensjonen. Intervensjonenes effekt på stress var ikke påvirket av respondentenes kjønn eller utdanningsnivå. Intervensjonen syntes imidlertid å ha noe bedre effekt blant personer i alderen 23 til 32 år, enn personer i andre aldersgrupper. Konklusjon: Det kan konkluderes med at studien viser at forekomsten av stress kan reduseres ved en internettbasert, helautomatisk selvhjelpsintervensjon.

• Drozd, Filip; Blandhol, Sverre & Kraft, Pål (2012). Teaching Interpersonal Communication Skills Using an Internet Based Intervention: a Randomised Controlled Trial. Universitetet i Oslo. Show summary

  Skilled interpersonal communication improves individual and group outcomes in life and work. This makes it important to find effective and efficient training methods to teach interpersonal communication skills. Internet based interventions may provide training to a wide audience at low cost and have been shown to be effective for a range of health related behaviours, but so far not for communication skills training. The present study evaluates the efficacy of an internet-based intervention to teach interpersonal communication skills relative to a control group. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions. In the treatment condition, participants got access to a four week internet based communication skills training program. The control group was put on a waiting list. Interpersonal communication skills were measured at baseline and at 1 month, 2 months and 6 months follow ups, using a selection of subscales from the Conflict Resolution Questionnaire and the Perspective Taking scale. Analyses did not find any statistically significant effects of the intervention relative to the control group. Several possible reasons for this null finding are discussed, and directions for future research are proposed.

• Soland Olsen, Elise; Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2010). Balanse i "Balance": En kvalitativ brukerstudie av en nettbasert alkoholintervensjon. Universitetet i Oslo. Show summary

  Det er i senere tid observert økning av alkoholkonsum og alkoholrelaterte problemer, spesielt blant unge og kvinner. Flere forbruksmønster kan forårsake vesentlig risiko eller skade. Fra et samfunnsperspektiv er det imidlertid ikke avhengighet, men skadelig og risikofylt alkoholforbruk som tilskrives det største skadeomfanget. Digitale intervensjoner overfor denne målgruppen er et relativt nytt fagfelt med nye muligheter og potensial. Studiens formål var å gi en strukturert evaluering av hvorvidt den nettbaserte alkoholintervensjonen Balance fungerer suksessfullt som et informasjonssystem. Dette ble valgt å undersøkes fra et brukerperspektiv, og kvalitative semistrukturerte telefonintervju med 7 brukere ble gjennomført. Resultatene ble analysert ved bruk av teoribasert tematisk analyse, med utgangspunkt i D&M modellen. Her ble 5 komponenter av informasjonssystemet undersøkt: informasjonskvalitet, systemkvalitet, systembruk, brukertilfredshet, og netto utbytte. Resultatene konkluderer med at Balance totalt sett fungerte som et informasjonssystem, spesielt i forhold til informasjonskvalitet og netto utbytte. Den delen som fungerte dårligst var en underkategori av systemkvalitet, men dette virket ikke å påvirke den totale brukertilfredsheten.

• Larsen, Elisabeth; Lund, Karl Erik & Kraft, Pål (2006). En evaluering av tobakkskampanjen ”Hver eneste sigarett skader deg” Evaluering av det offentlige tobakksforebyggende arbeidet i Norge 2003-2007 - rapport 10 fra HEMIL/SIRUS. Statens institutt for rusmiddelforskning. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Tobakkskampanjen "Hver eneste sigarett skader deg" ble gjennomført i Norge fra 6. januar til 16. februar 2003, og hadde som hovedmål å få mottakerne av budskapet til å slutte å røyke eller la være å begynne. Innholdet i kampanjen er basert på den australske kampanjen "Every cigarett is doing you damage", og tar i bruk frykt som virkemiddel ved å vise gruoppvekkende skader på kroppen som følge av røyking. Evalueringen av kampanjen i Norge er basert på to surveyundersøkelser (telefonintervju) i desember 2002 (T1) og mars 2003 (T2). Respondentene fordeler seg med 500 røykere i aldersgruppen 16 -19 år, 500 røykere i aldersgruppen 35-55 år, 500 ikke-røykere i aldersgruppen 16-19 år og 250 ikke- røykere i aldersgruppen 35-55 år ved både T1 og T2. Evalueringen konsentrerte seg om følgende forhold ved kampanjen: (i) oppmerksomhet i befolkningen, (ii) kognitive og emosjonelle reaksjoner; (iii) endringer i røykeatferd og underliggende årsaker. Resultatene viste at kampanjen ble gjenstand for stor oppmerksomhet idet over 90% av respondentene hadde lagt merke til den. Folk hadde særlig lagt merke til de tre videospottene "Aorta", "Tjære" og "Hjerneslag". Samlet sett kan det sies at kampanjen ble godt mottatt i befolkningen, et forhold som trolig kan tilskrives en god lanseringsstrategi. Kampanjen synes ikke å ha fremkalt sterke negative emosjonelle reaksjoner verken hos røykere eller ikke- røykere, unge eller "eldre". Det var imidlertid systematiske forskjeller mellom røykere og ikke-røykere når det gjelder reaksjonene på innholdet i kampanjen. Ikke-røykere vurderte innholdet som mer overbevisende, opplysende og troverdig sammenlignet med røykerne, mens røykerne syntes budskapene var mindre skremmende og fryktvekkende enn ikke- røykerne. Røykere rapporterte også i større grad enn ikke-røykerne at kampanjen var manipulerende og frihetsberøvende. Et sentralt funn var en nedgang i andelen dagligrøykere i befolkningen med 6% i aldersgruppen 35-55 år og 3% i aldersgruppen 16-19 år fra T1 til T2, men nedgangen var ikke statistisk signifikant med den tilgjengelige utvalgsstørrelsen. Dernest var det en statistisk signifikant økning i andelen som rapporterte at de hadde sluttet å røyke i løpet av siste 3 måneder før T2 sammenlignet med T1 i den eldste aldersgruppen. Tendensen var den samme i aldersgruppen 16-19 år. Også når det gjelder forberedende røykesluttaktiviteter går tendense

• Kraft, Pål (2002). Opplevd atferdskontroll (PBC) i teorien om planlagt atferd : teoretiske og metodologiske betraktninger. Institutt for samfunnspsykologi. Det psykologiske fakultet.. ISSN 8291713251.
• Kraft, Pål (1999). Røyking og sosial påvirkning - empirisk forskning og sosialpsykologisk teori. Hemil-senteret.
• Kraft, Pål (1998). Individual health behaviour and societal constraints - some sociological models for conceptualising macro-micro-interactions. The case of smoking. Hemil-senteret.
• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (1998). Utvikling av røykevaner blant ansatte i Sjøforsvaret. Rapport nr.2 til Sanitetsinspektøren for Sjøforsvaret. [Mangler utgivernavn].

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